Mathematics of the Greeks and the Mayans Essay Example for Free

Mathematics of the Greeks and the Mayans Essay Mathematics is the study of time, space, structure, and quantity which is used to calculate almost anything in the world from the amount of atoms in an element to calculating the air pressure in a room. Although levels of math such as calculus are not taught until college, the use and study of mathematics have been around since the beginning of time and the world wouldn’t be able to function without it. The term â€Å"mathematics† comes from the Greek word mathema which means study, knowledge, or learning. Along with philosophy and astronomy, the ancient Greeks were well known for their development and contribution as brilliant mathematicians. Despite their widely spread fame as the world’s first greatest mathematicians, the Greeks had competitors. My contention is that the Mayans were one of the top mathematicians of the ancient world and were even more advanced than the Greeks. Ancient Greek mathematics has been developed since the early seventh century B.C. which could also be called the period during the Hellenistic Mathematics. Some of the greatest Ancient Greek mathematicians were Pythagoras, Aristotle, Anaxagoras, Euclid, Archimedes, Thales, and Aristarchus. These Greek mathematicians were big on the development of geometry which is a subdivision of math that focuses on shapes, size, and the relativity of space. Although their number system was based on letters of the alphabet and used units of five and ten, they therefore were not big on the processes of Algebra. However the Greeks became the masters of calculating solutions concerning volume, lengths and areas using geometric methods and theorems to solve algebraic equations. Despite contributions to modern day arithmetic such as the Pythagorean Theorem and Euclidian Geometry the Greeks were missing one essential part of math, one number that modern day civilization mathematics would not be able to f unction without. The Mayans included this number in their mathematic system which in turn made them the greatest mathematicians of the ancient world, this number was zero. Along with ancient Greece, Egypt, Rome and Babylonian history did not have or use the number zero. Although the Greek number system worked fairly well for their arithmetic, they were very limited to what they could do because of their limitations of their numbers. For example, the number zero and irrational numbers did not exist and were not possible from the doubt of how nothing could count as something. It was not until 150 A.D that Greek astronomer Ptolemy was the first to put a zero at the end of a number represented by the letter O which was well over a thousand years after the Mayans. Maya civilization was established in Mesoamerica in current day Yucatan Peninsula from about 2,000 B.C to 250 A.D during the Pre-Classic era to the classic era up until the settlement of the Spanish conquistadors and its collapse. Similar to Greece, Maya was not a unified kingdom and consisted of many smaller city states and they were also known for the uniqueness of their astronomy, original art and architecture which was all built and based by math. Contrasting from the Greeks instead of using units based on five and ten, the Mayans used a base number of twenty. In the Mayan number system, a dot represented one while a horizontal bar represented five. During the Hellenistic period in Europe, many astronomers arose when they applied their knowledge of math to astronomy. Some well-known astronomers of ancient Greece are Anaxagoras, Thales, and Ptolemy all of which who discover that the Earth was round, Earth revolved around the son and that the weather was not controlled by God. Due to these marvelous discoveries, Ancient Greece is often referred to as the Father of astronomy however this is not quite accurate. These findings were based on grounds that were built upon by civilizations in other parts of the world such as Mesoamerica. Because of the geographical distance from the Maya civilization to the Greek civilization, they were not influenced by the Greek’s findings and instead came across almost the same discoveries but with their own methods. Not much is known about Maya history due to the destruction of Maya texts and writings by the Spanish church and government officials in the 16th century; however three books miraculously survived which are the Dresden Codex, Madrid Codex, and the Paris Codex. These books contain the last written information about Maya history, art, rituals, astrology, zodiac, calendar, and math. One significant item in these books was a drawing of a shell which was on the first representations of the number zero. The codex also contained recorded meticulous observations of the sky and space. In the codex were diagrams that displayed an eclipse table that calculates times when eclipses might happen, a Venus table that calculates the times when Venus appears as morning star, and a Mars table that records the times when Mars goes into reversing motion. The Maya pursued to apprehend the repetitive sequences of motions of the moon and planets to be able to forecast when these objects in the sky would be in a certain place in the sky during a certain time. For example, they used the movement of the sun in the sky to calculate the number of days in a year. Due to the tilt of the Earths axis, the sun shows up at different locations in the sky depending on the time of year which causes the change in seasons. The Mayans were able to calculate the number of days in a solar tropical year from the equation, 1507 tropical years = 1508 haabs or 365 multiplied by 1508 days which equals out to be 365.242 days which is very precise and accurate to the actual modern calculations of 365.24198 days as compared to the Greeks calculations of 365.24667 days. The Mayans have proven to be at the top of the ancient world’s mathematics and astronomy from their discoveries that are established as accurate even to this day by using their own methods written on their codex stripping ancient Greece of their title of the fathers of mathematics and astronomy.

History of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents

History of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents Biological warfare (BW), also known as germ warfare, is the use of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, other disease-causing biological agents, or the toxins produced by them as biological weapons (or bioweapons). There is a clear overlap between biological warfare and chemical warfare, as the use of toxins produced by living organisms is considered under the provisions of both the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention. Toxins, which are of organic origin, are often called midspectrum agents. A biological weapon may be intended to kill, incapacitate, or seriously impair a person, group of people, or even an entire population. It may also be defined as the material or defense against such employment. Biological warfare is a military technique that can be used by nation-states or non-national groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely, it may also be considered bioterrorism. History: Biological warfare has been practiced repeatedly throughout history. Before the 20th century, the use of biological agents took three major forms: Deliberate poisoning of food and water with infectious material Use of microorganisms, toxins or animals, living or dead, in a weapon system Use of biologically inoculated fabrics The ancient world: The earliest documented incident of the intention to use biological weapons is recorded in Hittite texts of 1500-1200 B.C, in which victims of plague were driven into enemy lands. Although the Assyrians knew of ergot, a parasitic fungus of rye which produces ergotism when ingested, there is no evidence that they poisoned enemy wells with the fungus, as has been claimed. According to Homers epic poems about the legendary Trojan War, the Iliad and the Odyssey, spears and arrows were tipped with poison. During the First Sacred War in Greece, in about 590 BC, Athens and the Amphictionic League poisoned the water supply of the besieged town of Kirrha (near Delphi) with the toxic plant hellebore. The Roman commander Manius Aquillus poisoned the wells of besieged enemy cities in about 130 BC. During the 4th century BC Scythian archers tipped their arrow tips with snake venom, human blood, and animal feces to cause wounds to become infected. There are numerous other instances of the use of plant toxins, venoms, and other poisonous substances to create biological weapons in antiquity. In 184 B.C, Hannibal of Carthage had clay pots filled with venomous snakes and instructed his soldiers to throw the pots onto the decks of Pergamene ships. In about AD 198, the city of Hatra (near Mosul, Iraq) repulsed the Roman army led by Septimius Severus by hurling clay pots filled with live scorpions at them. Medieval biological warfare: When the Mongol Empire established commercial and political connections between the Eastern and Western areas of the world, its Mongol armies and merchant caravans probably inadvertently brought bubonic plague from central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. The Black Death swept through Eurasia, killing approximately one third to one half of the population and changing the course of Asian and European history. During the Middle Ages, victims of the bubonic plague were used for biological attacks, often by flinging corpses and excrement over castle walls using catapults. In 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa (now Theodosia). It has been speculated that this operation may have been responsible for the advent of the Black Death in Europe. At the siege of Thun lEveque in 1340, during the Hundred Years War, the attackers catapulted decomposing animals into the besieged area. Modern times: The 18th Century: The Native American population was decimated after contact with the Old World due to the introduction of many different fatal diseases. There are two documented cases of alleged and attempted germ warfare. The first, during a parley at Fort Pitt on June 24, 1763, Ecuyer gave representatives of the besieging Delawares two blankets and a handkerchief that had been exposed to smallpox, hoping to spread the disease to the Natives in order to end the siege. William Trent, the militia commander, left records that clearly indicated that the purpose of giving the blankets was to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians. British commander Lord Jeffrey Amherst and Swiss-British officer Colonel Henry Bouquet, whose correspondence referenced the idea of giving smallpox-infected blankets to Indians in the course of Pontiacs Rebellion. Historian Francis Parkman verifies four letters from June 29, July 13, 16 and 26th, 1763. Excerpts: Commander Lord Jeffrey Amherst writes July 16, 1763, P.S. You will Do well to try to Inocculate the Indians by means of Blankets, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race. I should be very glad your Scheme for Hunting them Down by Dogs could take Effect, Colonel Henry Bouquet replies July 26, 1763, I received yesterday your Excellencys letters of 16th with their Inclosures. The signal for Indian Messengers, and all your directions will be observed. While the intent for biological warfare is clear, there is a debate among historians as to whether this actually took place despite Bouquets affirmative reply to Amherst and each having written to the other about it twice. Smallpox transmitted to Native American tribes could have been due to the transfer of the disease to blankets during transportation. Historians have been unable to establish whether or not this plan was implemented, particularly in light of the fact that smallpox was already present in the region, and that scientific knowledge of disease at that time had yet to discover bacteria or develop an understanding of plague vectors. Regardless of whether this plan was carried out, trade and combat provided ample opportunity for transmission of the disease. See also: Small pox during Pontiacs Rebellion. The 19th Century: In 1834 Cambridge Diarist Richard Henry Dana visited San Francisco on a merchant ship. His ship traded many items including blankets with Mexicans and Russians who had established outposts on the northern side of the San Francisco Bay. Local histories document that the California smallpox epidemic began at the Russian fort soon after they left. Blankets were a popular trading item, and the cheapest source of them was second-hand blankets which were often contaminated. During the American Civil War, General Sherman reported that Confederate forces shot farm animals in ponds upon which the Union depended for drinking water. This would have made the water unpleasant to drink, although the actual health risks from dead bodies of humans and animals which did not die of disease are minimal. Jack London in his story Yah! Yah! Yah! describes a punitive European expedition to a Pacific island deliberately exposing the Polynesian population to Measles, of which many of them died s:South Sea Tales/Yah! Yah! Yah!. While much of the material for Londons South Sea Tales is derived from his personal experience in the region, it is not certain that this particular incident is historical. The 20th Century: During the First World War, Germany pursued an ambitious biological warfare program. Using diplomatic pouches and couriers, the German General Staff supplied small teams of saboteurs in the Russian Duchy of Finland, and in the then-neutral countries of Romania, the US and Argentina. In Finland, Scandinavian freedom fighters mounted on reindeer placed ampules of anthrax in stables of Russian horses in 1916. Anthrax was also supplied to the German military attache in Bucharest, as was Glanders, which was employed against livestock destined for Allied service. German intelligence officer and US citizen Dr. Anton Casimir Dilger established a secret lab in the basement of his sisters home in Chevy Chase, Maryland, that produced Glanders which was used to infect livestock in ports and inland collection points including, at least, Newport News, Norfolk, Baltimore, and New York, and probably St. Louis and Covington, Kentucky. In Argentina, German agents also employed Glanders in the port of Buenos Aires and also tried to ruin wheat harvests with a destructive fungus. During the 1948 Israel War of Independence, Red Cross reports raised suspicion that the Jewish Haganah militia had released Salmonella typhi bacteria into the water supply for the city of Acre, causing an outbreak of typhoid among the inhabitants. Egyptian troops later captured disguised Haganah soldiers near wells in Gaza, whom they executed for allegedly attempting another attack. Israel denies these allegations. During the Cold War, US conscientious objectors were used as consenting test subjects for biological agents in a program known as Operation Whitecoat. There were also many unpublicized tests carried out on the public during the Cold War. E120 biological bomblet, developed before the U.S. signed the Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention Considerable research on the topic was performed by the United States (see US Biological Weapon Testing), the Soviet Union, and probably other major nations throughout the Cold War era, though it is generally believed that biological weapons were never used after World War II. This view was challenged by China and North Korea, who accused the United States of large-scale field testing of biological weapons, including the use of disease-carrying insects against them during the Korean War (1950-1953). Biological agents: Biological warfare is the deliberate use of disease and natural poisons to incapacitate humans. It employs pathogens as weapons. Pathogens are the micro-organism, whether bacterial, viral or protozoic, that cause disease. There are four kinds of biological warfare agents: bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae and fungi. Biological weapons are distinguished by being living organisms, that reproduce within their host victims, who then become contagious with a deadly, if weakening, multiplier effect. Toxins in contrast do not reproduce in the victim and need only the briefest of incubation periods; they kill within a few hours. Biological Weapons Characteristics: Anti-personnel BW: Ideal characteristics of biological weapons targeting humans are high infectivity, high potency, non-availability of vaccines, and delivery as an aerosol. Diseases most likely to be considered for use as biological weapons are contenders because of their lethality (if delivered efficiently), and robustness (making aerosol delivery feasible). The biological agents used in biological weapons can often be manufactured quickly and easily. The primary difficulty is not the production of the biological agent but delivery in an effective form to a vulnerable target. For example, anthrax is considered an effective agent for several reasons. First, it forms hardy spores, perfect for dispersal aerosols. Second, pneumonic (lung) infections of anthrax usually do not cause secondary infections in other people. Thus, the effect of the agent is usually confined to the target. A pneumonic anthrax infection starts with ordinary cold symptoms and quickly becomes lethal, with a fatality rate that is 90% or higher. Finally, friendly personnel can be protected with suitable antibiotics. A mass attack using anthrax would require the creation of aerosol particles of 1.5 to 5 micrometres. Too large and the aerosol would be filtered out by the respiratory system. Too small and the aerosol would be inhaled and exhaled. Also, at this size, nonconductive powders tend to clump and cling because of electrostatic charges. This hinders dispersion. So the material must be treated to insulate and discharge the charges. The aerosol must be delivered so that rain and sun does not rot it, and yet the human lung can be infected. There are other technological difficulties as well. Diseases considered for weaponization, or known to be weaponized include anthrax , ebola, Marburg virus, plague , cholera , tularemia, brucellosis, Q fever, Bolivian hemorrhagic fever, Coccidioides mycosis , Glanders, Melioidosis, Shigella, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, typhus , Psittacosis, yellow fever , Japanese B encephalitis , Rift Valley fever, and smallpox [19][31]. Naturally-occurring toxins that can be used as weapons include ricin, SEB, botulism toxin, saxitoxin, and many mycotoxins. The organisms causing these diseases are known as select agents. In the United States, their possession, use, and transfer are regulated by the Centers for Disease Control and Preventions Select Agent Program. Anti-agriculture BW: Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i.e., herbicides) during the Second World War, and initiated an herbicidal warfare program that was eventually used in Malaya and Vietnam in counter insurgency. Though herbicides are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare as bioregulators in a similar manner as biotoxins. Scorched earth tactics or destroying livestock and farmland were carried out in the Vietnam war and Eelam War in Sri Lanka. The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the Cold War that used plant diseases (bioherbicides, or mycoherbicides) for destroying enemy agriculture. It was believed that destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet aggression in a general war. Diseases such as wheat blast and rice blast were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy water sheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotics (epidemics among plants). When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970, the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases. In 1980s Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had successfully developed variants of foot-and-mouth disease and rinderpest against cows, African swine fever for pigs, and psittacosis to kill chicken. These agents were prepared to spray them down from tanks attached to airplanes over hundreds of miles. The secret program was code-named Ecology Biodefence: Role of public health departments and disease surveillance: It is important to note that all of the classical and modern biological weapons organisms are animal diseases, the only exception being smallpox. Thus, in any use of biological weapons, it is highly likely that animals will become ill either simultaneously with, or perhaps earlier than humans. Indeed, in the largest biological weapons accident known- the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) in the Soviet Union in 1979, sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point of the organism from a military facility in the southeastern portion of the city (known as Compound 19 and still off limits to visitors today, see Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak). Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill. For example in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24 36 hours after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-ray finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive timely reports). By making these data available to local public health officials in real time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoid the moderately high mortality of the disease. Identification of bioweapons: The goal of biodefense is to integrate the sustained efforts of the national and homeland security, medical, public health, intelligence, diplomatic, and law enforcement communities. Health care providers and public health officers are among the first lines of defense. In some countries private, local, and provincial (state) capabilities are being augmented by and coordinated with federal assets, to provide layered defenses against biological weapons attacks. During the first Gulf War the United Nations activated a biological and chemical response team, Task Force Scorpio, to respond to any potential use of weapons of mass destruction on civilians. The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture, food, and water: focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a disease is being strengthened by focused efforts to address current and anticipated future biological weapons threats that may be deliberate, multiple, and repetitive. The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to the development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot analysis and identification of encountered suspect materials. One such technology, being developed by researchers from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), employs a sandwich immunoassay, in which fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies aimed at specific pathogens are attached to silver and gold nanowires. Biological agent A sampling of Bacillus anthracis-Anthrax A biological agent is a bacterium, virus, prion, fungus, or biological toxin that can be used in bioterrorism or biological warfare. More than 1200 different kinds of biological agents have been described and studied to date. Applying a slightly broader definition, some eukaryotes (for example parasites) and their associated toxins can be considered as biological agents. Biological agents have the ability to adversely affect human health in a variety of ways, ranging from relatively mild allergic reactions to serious medical conditions, even death. These organisms are ubiquitous in the natural environment; they are found in water, soil, plants, and animals. Because many biological agents reproduce rapidly and require minimal resources for preservation, they are a potential danger in a wide variety of occupational settings. Antibiotic resistance: Antibiotic resistance is a specific type of drug resistance when a microorganism has the ability of withstanding the effects of antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance evolves via natural selection acting upon random mutation, but it can also be engineered by applying an evolutionary stress on a population. Once such a gene is generated, bacteria can then transfer the genetic information in a horizontal fashion (between individuals) by conjugation, transduction, or transformation. Many antibiotic resistance genes reside on plasmids, facilitating their transfer. If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called multiresistant or, informally, a superbug. The term antimicrobial resistance is sometimes used to explicitly encompass organisms other than bacteria. Antibiotic resistance can also be introduced artificially into a microorganism through laboratory protocols, sometimes used as a selectable marker to examine the mechanisms of gene transfer or to identify individuals that absorbed a piece of DNA that included the resistance gene and another gene of interest. Causes: The widespread use of antibiotics both inside and outside of medicine is playing a significant role in the emergence of resistant bacteria. They are often used in animals but also in other industries which at least in the case of agricultural use lead to the spread of resistant strains to human populations. In some countries antibiotics are sold over the counter without a prescription which compounds the problem. In human medicine the major problem of the emergence of resistant bacteria is due to misuse and overuse of antibiotics by doctors as well as patients. Other practices contributing towards resistance include the addition of antibiotics to the feed of livestock. Household use of antibacterials in soaps and other products, although not clearly contributing to resistance, is also discouraged (as not being effective at infection control). Also unsound practices in the pharmaceutical manufacturing industry can contribute towards the likelihood of creating antibiotic resistant stra ins. Certain antibiotic classes are highly associated with colonisation with superbugs compared to other antibiotic classes. The risk for colonisation increases if there is a lack of sensitivity (resistance) of the superbugs to the antibiotic used and high tissue penetration as well as broad spectrum activity against good bacteria. In the case of MRSA, increased rates of MRSA infections are seen with glycopeptides, cephalosporins and especially quinolones. In the case of colonisation with C difficile the high risk antibiotics include cephalosporins and in particular quinolones and clindamycin. Mechanisms: Antibiotic resistance can be a result of horizontal gene transfer,[30] and also of unlinked point mutations in the pathogen genome and a rate of about 1 in 108 per chromosomal replication. The antibiotic action against the pathogen can be seen as an environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce. They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will result in a fully resistant colony. The four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are: Drug inactivation or modification: e.g. enzymatic deactivation of Penicillin G in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of ÃŽÂ ²-lactamases. Alteration of target site: e.g. alteration of PBP-the binding target site of penicillins-in MRSA and other penicillin-resistant bacteria. Alteration of metabolic pathway: e.g. some sulfonamide-resistant bacteria do not require para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), an important precursor for the synthesis of folic acid and nucleic acids in bacteria inhibited by sulfonamides. Instead, like mammalian cells, they turn to utilizing preformed folic acid. Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability and/or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface. Conclusion: Specific consensus recommendations are made regarding the diagnosis of anthrax, indications for vaccination, therapy for those exposed, postexposure prophylaxis, decontamination of the environment, and additional research needs. Of the numerous biological agents that may be used as weapons, the Working Group on Civilian Biodefense has identified a limited number of organisms that could cause disease and deaths in sufficient numbers to cripple a city or region. Anthrax is one of the most serious of these diseases.

Investigating the Energy Released of Ethanol and 1-pentanol

Investigating the Energy Released of Ethanol and 1-pentanol 1.0 Introduction Combustion reactions are always exothermic, due to the substances (fuels) releasing energy through combustion (temperature increases), which the change in enthalpy () is negative value. All fuels of this experiment are alcohols – ethanol, 1-pentanol and two mixtures of them with different ratios (90%:10% ; 80%:20%), which are the most common organic compounds. Alcohols contain the hydroxyl functional group (-OH) (Diagram 1) bonded to an alkyl group’s carbon atom (Chemwiki, 2014). The classification of alcohols depends on the number of carbon atoms are attached to the carbon atom that is attached to OH group. Both ethanol and 1-pentanol are primary () alcohols, which only one carbon atom is attached to the carbon atom with the OH group (Chemiwiki, 2014). Secondary () and tertiary () alcohols are when two and three carbon atoms are attached to the carbon atom with OH group, but they would not be used in the experiment. In this experiment, 1-pentanol () (Diagram 2) has the longest carbon chain (five carbon atoms) of the fuels, which is expected to produce the highest amount of heat during combustion (), and ethanol () (Diagram 1) has the lowest number of carbon atoms (two carbon atoms), which is believed to release low energy during combustion (). During combustion, the fuel/alcohol reacts with oxygen which produces carbon dioxide and water vapour. It is believed that the greater the change in enthalpy value, the more efficiency of the fuel and more energy will be released. The energy released is calculated through bond energy and measured data, which the heat of combustion of water is divided by the number of moles of the fuel used (). All fuels used in the experiment are hydrocarbon, which is when the carbon atoms joining together form different bonds. There are three main groups of bonding types (Diagram 3): alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2015). Ethanol and 1-pentanol are both alkanes, that they only contain single bonds between carbon atoms; whereas, alkenes and alkynes group contain double and triple bonds between the carbon atoms. The calculated enthalpy change of energy is only an approximation, as the bond energy value for each bond is only an average. In addition, the bond energy value provided for each bond is measured in various states for different situations. This accounts for the difference between the calculated and the actual (Harcourt Education, 2007-2010). 4.0 Discussion 4.1 Analysis By investigating the energy produced during the combustion of different fuels, a linear increasing relationship (Figure 3) was discovered that the longer the carbon chain lengths (larger molar mass) in each fuel molecule, the higher energy released during combustion. Due to two of the fuels being mixtures, the number of carbon was hard to define; hence, the molar mass was used to compare with the average enthalpy. According to Figure 2, the average enthalpy and the fuels’ molar mass had a linear relationship, that the larger molar mass of the fuel, the higher the heat of combustion. Ethanol had the lowest molar mass of 46.069g and 1-pentanol had the highest molar mass of 88.15g (Table 2), hence ethanol had the lowest average heat of combustion (668.6403kJ/mole) whereas 1-pentanol had the highest value (1588.2183kJ/mole) (Table 1). There was a large percentage increase of 137.53% from ethanol to 1-pentanol, which supported the increasing trend and the significant difference in Figure 2. Since a longer carbon chain lengths contain more C-H and C-C bonds (more bond energies) which produce more C=O and O-H bonds ( and ); more bonds would be needed to break and larger level of energy released. Figure 1 clearly illustrated that the secondary and calculated data both supported the increasing trend as the blue and orange bars continued to rise with the increase in molar mass. Thus, 1-pentanol was expected and justified to be the most efficient fuel for this experiment. Mixtures of ethanol and 1-pentanol were used to explore whether ethanol would have a great impact on 1-pentanol and the mixture with ratio of 90% ethanol and 10% 1-pentanol was expected to be the most efficient fuel in real life context. Through calculations, both mixtures had larger values of heat of combustion than pure ethanol; hence, ethanol had an impact on 1-pentanol as the percentage change of the mixture with 10% of 1-pentanol was 22.78% and 20% of 1-pentanol mixture was 39.40% in comparison to pure ethanol. Theoretically, the percentage change of the mixture with 20% of 1-pentanol should be more efficient than the mixture with 10% 1-pentanol due to it produced more energy, which it did have a higher value of energy (933.9340 kJ/mole) released than the other mixture (820.9308 kJ/mole). However, the Australian Government regulations would have a proportion of 10% ethanol in petrol (Biofuels Association of Australia, 2014), due to most petrol used in gasoline and diesel engines (in Australia) have an expansion ratio of 10:1 for premium fuel or 9:1 for regular fuel, and some other engines have ratios of 12:1 or higher (Wikipedia, 2015). Therefore, although the mixture with 20% 1-pentanol had higher efficiency than mixture with 10% 1-pentanol, the hypothesis was justified that the mixture with a ratio of 90% ethanol and 10% 1-pentanol was a more efficient fuel for petrol because it had a more most efficient ratio in real life, whereas the mixture with ratio of 80%:20% would be not as effective and may require different design/structure of engine or cause damage to the engine. 4.2 Evaluation The trials of the experiment were completed with consistency, although heat loss occurred, the increasing trend still applied through measured, secondary and calculated data. Moreover, heat loss occurred throughout the whole experiment which justified the consistency, thus the experiment was valid. From Table 3, the average percentage error showed that the mixture with ratio of 80%:20% was the most accurate fuel with lowest percentage error (44.74%) and pure 1-pentanol was the least accurate and had the highest percentage error (50.35%). All percentage errors were mainly caused by heat loss, which was probably due to incomplete combustion occurring during combustion as some black substances were on the bottom of the small cans after burning, which would have reduced the fuel efficiency so more mass of fuel was used. The insufficiency of oxygen caused incomplete combustion to produce carbon monoxide and water vapour, which could be avoided by washing off the char on the can after use each time to ensure the fuel efficiency in the next trial. Fibreglass was used as insulator wrapped around outside the big can, it could be improved by wrapping another layer of cellulose insulator (mainly made of shredded newspaper and mixed with several of chemicals to reduce its flammability) for the next experiment to increase energy efficiency. Fibreglass’ main weakness is that its incapability of blocking air from passing though, whereas cellulose insulator has higher density which would limit the air movement and prevent air-leakage better (Binford C, 2011). The non-consistency of the flame may have reduced the fuel efficiency as well, due to the flame was not stable while burning, but this could be overcome by conducting the experiment with a diminished-scale of compartment and calorimeter (over the top of the flame and cans) to investigate the maximum heat released rate and the combustion efficiency. The precision between all trials of pure ethanol, 1-pentanol and the mixture with 10% of 1-pentanol were good as the results of mass used of fuels were consistent. However, there was a big anomaly due to heat loss, occurring in the second trial of the mixture with 20% of 1-pentanol that the mass of fuel used was 0.65g, which was approximately 9.25% higher than the other two trials. The anomaly may be due to the air-conditioning was just starting which affect the room temperature and the temperature around the flame. This could be improved by completing the experiment at a certain room temperature with no air-conditioning, and it would keep the consistency of surrounding’s temperature. The experiment could be extended by changing the percentage of ethanol (e.g. 10% of ethanol), based upon the Australian Government that most petrol have 10% ethanol because at this ratio ethanol produces the most efficient energy (justified in Analysis). It could be extended by using mixtures rat io of 50%:50% of ethanol and 1-pentanol to explore which fuel would have a greater impact, as well as mixtures with ratios of 10%:90% and 20%:80% of ethanol and 1-pentanol to investigate whether mixture with 10% of ethanol had the most fuel efficiency. Another way to extend this experiment is to use different concentration of fuels used in the original experiment, by adding water or evaporating the fuel (heating – increase the temperature) to decrease the concentration of fuels, then burn the fuels and calculate the mass of fuel used to then find the heat of combustion to investigate whether the trend of increase in carbon chain lengths/molar mass causes increase in the fuel efficiency still holds. 5.0 Conclusion In summary, the experiment was investigating the energy released of ethanol, 1-pentanol and their mixtures with ratios of 90% ethanol and 10% 1-pentanol and 80% of ethanol and 20% of 1-pentanol during combustion. Furthermore, the results of all fuels’ energy released were shown to obey the trend of increasing in carbon chain length (molar mass) lead to the increase in energy released, and the mixture with ratio of 90%:10% was discovered to be the most efficient fuel ratio for petrol as the Australian Government uses. Therefore, the hypothesis was justified that pure1-pentanol was the most efficient but when relating to real life circumstances fuel mixtures containing a ratio of 90%:10% were the most efficient for petrol.

The Color Of Water by James Mc Bride Essay -- essays research papers

â€Å"Black Power†, the word alone raises an abundance of controversial issues. Black power was a civil rights movement led by the black panthers which addressed several issues including segregation and racism. Black power had a different meaning to every member of the Mc Bride family, Ruth and James both looked at black power from a different angle. In â€Å"The Color of Water†, The author James Mc Bride admired the black panthers at first, but slowly he grew afraid of them after fearing the consequences his mother might face for being a white woman in a black community influenced by black power. James’ worries were baseless, black power’s motive was to educate and improve African American communities not to create havoc or to harm members of the white community. There was a time in James’ life when he was thrilled to see member’s of the black panther. James’ states â€Å"But our favorite was a gleaming black, souped-up GTO with the words â€Å"Black Power† written in smooth white script across the hood and top†(26). James admired the owner of that car, He wanted black culture to be carried out and he seemingly loved â€Å"dap†, the black panther’s handshake. The media assured their viewers that the black panthers were a threat to whites anywhere ,Which planted a seed of fear in James’ mind. James was so afraid that he wouldn’t be able to sleep till his mother was home(33). James would sometimes find himself in situations where people would call his mother names for no apparent reason other than ...

F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby :: essays research papers

In the novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, Nick Carroway proceeds through two stages of development as the novel unfolds. Beginning with tolerance of the other characters' actions; ending with full moral responsibility dealing with their conflicts, Nick Carroway found that immoral decisions lead to harmful situations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the beginning, Nick Carroway was very tolerant of the numerous affairs happening within his circle of friends and acquaintances. Shortly after Nick was first introduced to Daisy's husband Tom, he learned of an affair happening between he and another woman from New York. Nick seemed surprised to hear this, yet he kept quiet about it. Nick was also introduced later to the woman Tom had been having an affair with, Myrtle Wilson, the gas station attendant's wife. Nick did not speak to Tom of his infidelity he instead remained tolerant of it. And later when Tom and Nick met her in town, he still kept his thoughts to himself, rather than becoming involved in the conflict. Also, with Daisy and Gatsby's relationship Nick remained tolerant of the scandal. For example, when he set up the reunion of Daisy and Gatsby within his own home. He was aware of the sin, but he did not actually come forward with his opinion on the matter. Daisy would often go to Gatsby's house in t he afternoons, and still Nick would remain tolerant of the immoral acts performed by his cousin.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Towards the end of the novel as things became more involved Nick realized the error of his ways, and became a more moral character. He did not involve himself in either of the affairs any longer. In one enlightening evening, when Gatsby proclaimed Daisy's love for him, and Tom admitted to his own disloyalty, Nick made a decision to be moralistic. When Tom, Nick, and Jordan had arrived back at Tom and Daisy's home, Nick parted ways. When he drove away from the house, he spotted Gatsby. Who had decided to watch over things, and make sure Daisy would be alright that evening. Instead of trying to help Gatsby in any way, Nick drove home, and stayed out of his business. Making the decision that pursuing any further with the conflict was a bad idea.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Through all the friction Nick Carroway learned that playing a part in others' personal matters led to even more conflict than the beginning matter. Throughout all the deceit and unfaithfulness, friendships were broken and lives were taken. F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby :: essays research papers In the novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, Nick Carroway proceeds through two stages of development as the novel unfolds. Beginning with tolerance of the other characters' actions; ending with full moral responsibility dealing with their conflicts, Nick Carroway found that immoral decisions lead to harmful situations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the beginning, Nick Carroway was very tolerant of the numerous affairs happening within his circle of friends and acquaintances. Shortly after Nick was first introduced to Daisy's husband Tom, he learned of an affair happening between he and another woman from New York. Nick seemed surprised to hear this, yet he kept quiet about it. Nick was also introduced later to the woman Tom had been having an affair with, Myrtle Wilson, the gas station attendant's wife. Nick did not speak to Tom of his infidelity he instead remained tolerant of it. And later when Tom and Nick met her in town, he still kept his thoughts to himself, rather than becoming involved in the conflict. Also, with Daisy and Gatsby's relationship Nick remained tolerant of the scandal. For example, when he set up the reunion of Daisy and Gatsby within his own home. He was aware of the sin, but he did not actually come forward with his opinion on the matter. Daisy would often go to Gatsby's house in t he afternoons, and still Nick would remain tolerant of the immoral acts performed by his cousin.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Towards the end of the novel as things became more involved Nick realized the error of his ways, and became a more moral character. He did not involve himself in either of the affairs any longer. In one enlightening evening, when Gatsby proclaimed Daisy's love for him, and Tom admitted to his own disloyalty, Nick made a decision to be moralistic. When Tom, Nick, and Jordan had arrived back at Tom and Daisy's home, Nick parted ways. When he drove away from the house, he spotted Gatsby. Who had decided to watch over things, and make sure Daisy would be alright that evening. Instead of trying to help Gatsby in any way, Nick drove home, and stayed out of his business. Making the decision that pursuing any further with the conflict was a bad idea.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Through all the friction Nick Carroway learned that playing a part in others' personal matters led to even more conflict than the beginning matter. Throughout all the deceit and unfaithfulness, friendships were broken and lives were taken.

Mathematics & Natural Sciences with absolute certainty (TOK) Essay

Write an essay outlining your personal response to this topic. â€Å"Mathematicians have the concept of rigorous proof, which leads to knowing something with complete certainty. Consider the extent to which complete certainty might be achievable in mathematics and the natural sciences.† To what extent can man use mathematics and the natural sciences to embrace the concept of achieving absolute certainty? It is not possible for humans to achieve absolute certainty in knowledge using mathematics and the natural sciences. This is because mathematics is a creation of man to organize and communicate highly complex concepts and theories to others through a kind of language which goes beyond the spoken or written word. Many people believe the written word to be more true that the spoken word, the same can be applied to mathematics. Just because something can be written in the numbered format by a credible source, it doesn’t mean it’s necessarily true. The same can be said about the level of certainty to be achieved using proofs from natural sciences, with additional external variables. This can be explained through evolution. The natural sciences were discovered, observed and recorded to be studied further by man. The small level of certainty which can be obtained is from the inability to change nature without physically disturbing it and that human observations themselves are a big problem in the natural sciences. Conversely, absolute certainty can only be found in a few instances in nature. Math and the Natural Sciences are the two areas of knowledge which have the highest impact on our ability to achieve absolute certainty in knowing. The world revolves around proving knowledge with scientific claims, however any such claims must originate from the mouths of highly regarded mathematicians and scientists. Just like beauty is in the eye of the beholder, validity of knowledge is in the mouth of a credible source. If I were to go up to a friend and state that there is a mathematical sequence that can be found in every naturally produced object on earth, the friend would hinder. If I were to approach this friend with long papers written by credible mathematicians, the friend would be swayed to believe its likelihood. The same goes for the natural sciences. If I were to approach a friend and state that every living  organism on earth is made up of billions upon billions of cells, assuming this friend wasn’t the brightest of individuals, the friend would not be completely persuaded by the fact. If I were to approach the friend again with evidence of this fact being true, backed by credible science, there would be a significantly higher chance that the friend would be convinced this fact remains true. Logical reasoning is commonly connected with math, which is supported by certainty in that if A=B and B=C that A=C. When individuals try to back decisions with reasoning, they are using this deconstructive problem solving, assuming that it will lead them to the correct results. Unconsciously we are convinced that because both natural science and mathematics are backed by numbers, the results are going to be more accurate than more subjective reasoning. This goes without saying that most people believe that because both involve mathematical terminology, natural sciences and mathematics are interlinked. First of all, the concept of math is man-made, created to provide evidence for the natural sciences. Natural sciences was a term created by man, but originating from human’s very own existence. Natural science wasn’t created by man, it has always existed on earth. In other words, what we study from the natural sciences is purely based off of thousands of years worth of observations of what’s happening around us. Using technology, humans have began to glance deeper into the natural sciences, but it’s all still just observations of either how things function and came to be, or simply to predict where we were, where we are, and where we will be. People seem to believe that because mathematics and natural sciences have some similarities and use similar problem solving techniques, that they are connected. Observations are a big problem in science. If a biologist and a person with no experience with this work were trying to differentiate an Indian Rhinoceros and a Javan Rhinoceros, the biologist would rely on the perception of the rhino’s appearance and behavior. The biologist would have the training experience to determine these characteristics, but the person who doesn’t could easily mistake the two or not even know the differences. Although the biologist may have the title and credibility of making the  conclusion to differentiate an Indian Rhinoceros and a Javan Rhinoceros, and the person with no experience and no training doesn’t, it doesn’t mean that the credibility of the biologist provides absolute certainty. Slight imprecisions are not very significant and probably wouldn’t alter the results. However, even the most insignificant factors would prevent the biologist from being completely certain. An example involving mathematics which follows similar principals to the biologist and the rhinoceros’ would have the same outcome. This saying that science and mathematics can only be highly meticulous; it cannot achieve absolute certainty. Although ethics and emotion have very little effect on the natural sciences and mathematics, religion often does. The ethical viewpoint from which any mathematician or scientist have, will show no effect on his or her work. This is because a mathematician won’t refuse to answer an equation or attempt to explain a theory because of his ethical considerations. A scientist wouldn’t sit down and conduct an experiment using the wrong variables in a moment of extreme emotion. The only counter argument that stands is religion. Conversely, a hypothesis may be formed with religious consideration, straying far from achieving an absolutely certain result. Scientist William A. Dembski is a highly regarded advocate of the Intelligent Design theory. Although he thoroughly investigated the argument and determined that it’s more likely God exists, probably because of his religious background as a practicing Catholic. The religious bias shaped to his beliefs. Unlike the chance of interfering religious ideology, scientists and mathematics generally steer from involving ethics or religion into their work. The only emotional factor would be commitment. Mathematicians and scientists who work in the fields of the natural sciences dedicate their lives to their work. They strive to find the absolute certain answer but the best they can ever do is find a highly precise one. This is why the advancement of knowledge often takes a long time. The mathematician or scientist will generally have endless approaches to solving or proving their work. The golden ratio is a formula used in both mathematics and the arts which can be applied the geometric relationships. The ratio is one of the only  absolute certainties founded by mathematics. The golden ratio wasn’t created, it was discovered in nature. Simply, the golden ratio is when a geometric shape (golden rectangle, regular pentagon) has the ability to be split infinite times, and remain in the same ratio. It is only found in nature and only proved by theories. The term golden relates it to perfection, or in relative terms, absolute certainty. It is not possible for humans to achieve absolute certainty in knowledge using mathematics and the natural sciences. Mathematics is a creation of man to organize and communicate highly complex concepts and theories to others through a kind of language which goes beyond the spoken or written word. Most people do believe the written word to be more true that the spoken word, as seen, this can be shown just as thoroughly in mathematics and the natural sciences. Just because something can be written in the numbered format by a credible source, it doesn’t mean it’s true. The level of certainty to be achieved with absolute certainty of knowledge concludes with the same results, using multitudes of empirical evidences from observations. Therefore, although the natural sciences and mathematics may achieve highly precise and accurate results, with very few exceptions in nature, absolute certainty cannot be attained.

Home Page Essay

At Popcorn Supplies, we cordially invite you to sit back and enjoy the rich taste of entertainment as well as the essence of relaxation with our large kernelled, succulent popcorn as well as the delectable toppings that we offer. Our company’s product may already be known to you through our sister supplier Home Theatre Express. com. We provide the same mouth-watering buttery, caramel and other delicious popcorn flavors, but we offer them in wholesale quantities to those who want to invite large groups to enjoy the luscious experience. This offer is also meant to cater to those who own small or medium-sized businesses where such an appealing snack might be provided as a supplement to the entertainment or other activities provided. We offer a variety of services and products that enhance the popcorn production and consumption experience. Our store supplies carnival-style popcorn poppers such as Paragon Theater Pop and Gold Medal Funpop. We also stock large 4-oz bags of Orville Redenbacher’s high quality popcorn and cases of 35-oz Flavacol salt (12/case) that will equip your event to handle the high demand that is sure to materialize once guests or clients taste the scrumptious delight that comes in the popcorn bag. Plus, we also stock movie-theater popcorn buckets that create a much more authentic atmosphere for the occasion. Get these by the bulk too and legitimize your event as well-appointed and adequately catered. To this end, our toppings add the final touch of mouth-watering tastiness to the affair. This will make it not only a big hit with butter lovers, but also with caramel, cheese, nacho, frosting lover. And we offer even more toppings! Our prices are regularly unbeatable, and at wholesale prices it’s a full-scale, blow-out sale every day. Get your supplies now and save!