Elderly Abuse Essay

Lifespan stage and counseling-related problems. As part of being a human being, we are born and we grow old as time passes and then we die as life comes to an end. Part of human development is the stage of late adulthood. From the book â€Å"Human Behavior in the Social Environment,† by Jose B. Ashford and Craig Winston LeCroy, the years from age sixty until death are considered late adulthood. At this stage of life, there are many challenges that the elderly people face. Aging comes with the loss of being independent, age discrimination and diminished physical ability. During the aging process, there are also biological, emotional, intellectual, social and spiritual changes. Beside two other big challenges such as poverty and ageism, one of the biggest problems that elderly people face is elderly abuse when they are at the point in their lives where they are dependent of someone to provide supports for them. According to the American Psychological Association, an estimated 4 million older Americans are victims of physical, psychological or other forms of abuse and neglect. Many people who hear â€Å"elder abuse and neglect† think about older people who live in nursing homes or older relatives who live all alone and don’t have visitors. Being part of the counseling program, it is important for counselors to know that majority of incidents of elder abuse do not happen in nursing homes or other residential settings, but rather takes place at their own home with their own spouses, children, siblings or relatives. Forms of elderly abuse to be aware of are physical abuse, verbal/psychological/emotional abuse, sexual abuse, financial exploitation and neglect. Elder abuse is often a very complex problem that is caused by many reasons such as cultural issues, stress, society and other factors. Elder abuse affects both older men and women from all socioeconomic groups, cultures, race s and ethnicities. Bio-psycho-social developmental themes Bio-psycho-social developmental themes affecting late adulthood is crucial in  understanding elderly abuse. During this developmental stage, there are lots of changes in the biological systems among this age group. Problems related to elderly physical health include gradual loss of bone mass, joints are more restricted, variety of foot problems, and arthritis which is known to affect many elderly people. Power and speed of muscle decrease as well as strength and endurance. There is a decline in hearing and vision impairment. Skin gets thin and dryer which make the skin more easily bruised and injured. Maintaining independence and health is very important in the success of someone who is in this stage of development. With the biology of aging, the elderly become physically frail which cause others to care for them sometimes resulting in mistreatment and abuse. Forms of elderly abuse that affect the individuals biologically are physical abuse and sexual abuse. Physical abuse ranges from getting slapped, shoved, beatings, kicking, pinching, burning, and getting restrained with ropes or chains. Giving inappropriate medications is also part of physical abuse. Sexual abuse among this age group ranges from inappropriate touching, forcing sexual contact, rape, sodomy and coerced nudity. It is the least reported type of elderly abuse. Sexual abuse also includes taking pictures and forcing an individual to look at pornography. These two forms of elder abuse usually cause physical problems such as signs of body bruises, bruises around genital areas, unexplained sexually transmitted diseases, untreated wounds, sprains, broken glasses and bloody underclothing. There are changes in the psychological system of this developmental stage that contributed to elderly abuse and mistreatment. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia for aging individuals. Alzheimer is literally having memory loss which is common among individuals that are in their sixty and above. Cognitive impairment increases with age and dementia is usually one of the biggest problems that often refer to irreversible cognitive impairment that affects an individual’s memory, personality, and functioning. According to the Alzheimer’s Association, cognitive impairment can sometimes be discovered early in individuals. When individuals are not able to recall names, forgetting words, misplacing things, having memory loss, getting lost in own street or neighbor, not knowing or forgetting chore needs to be done, they may possibly be showing Alzheimer’s disease or other forms of dementia. Behavioral and emotional changes occur in people with Alzheimer’s disease. As the disease gets worsen, those with the disease will experience symptoms that include delusions, agitation, aggression and uncooperative with care. Alzheimer is a commonly known dementia disease in which there is no cure and it gets worse as it progresses. The risk of abuse increases in people with health issues such as dementia (Kohn and Verkoek-Oftedahl 2011). Verbal, emotional and psychological abuses are the common abuses that elderly individuals suffered from. Signs of emotional and psychological abuse are being upset, withdrawn, and unusual dementia-like behavior such as rocking and sucking. Name calling, intimidation, threatening, isolating the individual from families and friends are forms of verbal, emotional and psychological abuse. In late adulthood, the social dimension or support system becomes smaller. Majority of older adults have some family, while others do not. Family is the first line of support for older adults when they need care and assistance. Some older adults or elderly individuals often live with their children including grandchildren, while others live with their spouses. It is important to know that elderly abuse is often caused by family members and the least likely to be reported. For those that do not have family and are dependent for care, they are often live in adult residential homes or care facilities where they only people they interact with are the staffs within those settings. Elderly abuse is sometimes caused by individuals working at the care homes. Some individuals of this population experience loneliness and isolation. When an individual is isolated for no apparent reason, it is sometimes can be part of elderly abuse. Counseling Practice: Assess and Strategy Elderly abuse is often the result of certain societal attitudes that contribute to the violence and discrimination against older people. From the American Psychological Association, such factors that contribute to elderly abuse include the devaluation of and lack of respect for older adults and the society’s belief that what goes on in the home is a private â€Å"family matter.† When societal views regarding older people as insignificant, it results in failure to recognize the importance of assuring support, dignity and nonabusive life circumstances for every older individual. When people outside of the family observe or suspect abuse, they may fail to intervene because they believe that it is a family problem and is none of their  problems or they might be afraid that they are dealing with a private matter. Also, the feeling of shame and embarrassment might often make it difficult for older persons or even family members to report and reveal the abuse because they do n’t want others to know that such events are occurring in their families. Counselors need to take into consideration of certain cultural values, beliefs and traditions that influence the family dynamics and intergenerational relationships. These differences can make the situations difficult to distinguish from abuse or neglect. One big problem is older individuals from ethnic minorities or immigrants that do not speak English and have language barriers, financial or emotional dependence that prevent them from seeking or willingness to report abuse. It is important that anyone who works with older people in potentially abusive situations need to be sensitive to cultural differences and intervene accordingly as well as not to ignore signs of abuse. To prevent elderly abuse, counseling for behavioral or personal problems in the family can be helpful. Treating family members with substance abuse can prevent violence against aging adults in the households. In some cases, it may be a best interest to have the older individuals move to a different safer setting or having the older individuals live in nursing home if adult children are not equipped emotionally and physically to support and handle the responsibility of caring for an elderly person. When suspected of elderly abuse, counselors or any other related mental health professionals are mandated to report elderly abuse to adult protective services as required by laws. It is also important not let fear prevent you from reporting any suspicions of abuse taking place. It is important to know that someone’s life can be saved from further harms including death. People in their late adulthood deserve to be treated with respect and dignity. They are our parents, grandparents and love ones who deserve good care and love as they have reached the full stage of their lives. Cited Page Ashford, J. B., LeCroy, C. W., & Lortie, K. L. (2010). Human behavior in the social environment: a multidimensional perspective (4th ed.). Australia: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. Elder Abuse and Neglect: In Search of Solutions. (n.d.). http://www.apa.org. Retrieved November 16, 2013, from http://www.apa.org/pi/aging/resources/guides/elder-abuse.aspx Kohn, R., & Verhoek-Oftedahl, W. (2011). Caregiving and Elder Abuse. Medicine & Health Rhode Island, 94(2), 47–49. OpenStax College. (2013, July 29). Challenges Facing the Elderly. Retrieved from the Connexions Web site: http://cnx.org/content/m42880/1.4/ Resources Two Current Book References Glicken, M. D. (2009). Evidence-based counseling and psychotherapy for an aging population. Amsterdam: Academic. This book is a practical guide for advanced students, social workers, clinicians or anyone in the mental field that work with elderly clients. It covers the most effective evidence-based practices for assessment and treatment of elderly clients. Each chapter of the book directly addresses different range of conditions and disorders that are the most common for the elderly population such as social isolation, elder abuse and neglect, depression, anxiety disorders, terminal illnesses, dementias and so forth. It also prepares readers for conditions that they will encounter in the real world even working with or interacting with the elderly population. Wilson, G. (2000). Understanding old age critical and global perspectives. London: Sage. This book is about understanding old age or the elderly population. It gives readers a wide range of issues and policies on ageing. It provides many theoretical perspectives on ageing in different societies, the trends involving aging adults and what roles should be taken by older people including those who interact with this population. The book explores migration, different health issues, pensions, the structure of family and institutional care as well as it also touches based on elderly abuse. This book is essential for students, nurses, social work, counselors and those who want further understanding of the older population in our society. Journal Article Thompson, H., & Priest, R. (2005). Elder Abuse and Neglect: Considerations  for Mental Health Practitioners. Adultspan Journal, 4(2), 116-128. According to the authors, elder abused is largely an unrecognized problem in the United States and is often untreated. Elder abuse and neglect is so prevalence, that not all incidents are reported. By 2030, the elderly population of late adulthood will double and it is important for mental health practitioners to be aware of intervention, different strategies, consequences, laws and the risk factors that contributed to elder abuse when working with clients. The article addresses the different types of elderly abuse and states real life problems that mental health practitioners including counselors will encounter when working with the population. Educational Internet Website National Center on Elder Abuse (NCEA) www.ncea.aoa.gov The National Center on Elder Abuse or NCEA is directed by the U.S. Administration on Aging. According to the mission of The National Center on Elder Abuse, it is a resource for policy makers, social service and health care practitioners, the justice system, researchers, advocates, and families. The site has prevention strategies and different intervention partners that are good for different work fields such as for those working with older people in the social services, APS, Ombudsman and etc†¦ It provides many different practices that are utilized in different states throughout the United States. Local Referral Source Department of Health and Human Services, Ombudsman Program 7001 A East Parkway Sacramento, CA 95823 Telephone: (916) 875-2000 The Office of Ombudsman provide information, answer questions and resources to address issues. The Office of Ombudsman protects and defends a citizen’s rights.

Performance and Value in Business in Relation to Religion Essay

It’s commonly known that Christians use the Bible as a guide to salvation and to assist in having a stable loving family and home life. However, the Bible is far more useful than many imagine. The Bible is also a resource for the workplace. The first day on the job is often stressful; however, the Bible provides comfort with Psalm 23, â€Å"The Lord is my shepherd†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (NIV) Besides comfort, the Bible is a guide to proper performance in the workplace. Along with performance is value, and both are important in business. Managers should not increase a firm’s value or performance by treating employees harshly (Brealey et. al., p.14). They should act without vain conceit or selfish ambition, but with humility (Phil. 2:3). The value of a company is increased by the performance of the manager(s), and this is accomplished by meeting business standards, complying with all laws, tax codes, and paying debts on time (Rom. 13:1) (Mat. 22:17) (Rom. 13:7). Managers that are successful have built a trust with employees and other business partners which further enhance performance and increase a company’s value by creating long term working relationships (Brealey et. al., p. 15). Teaching others that you can be trusted serves to build profits and trusting in the Lord is essential (Tit. 2:10) (Tit. 3:8). One’s own belief in Christianity and using its valuable lessons as a guide to life is great, but what if people began to integrate it in business as a regular practice? This question was posed by Laura Nash in the article where she was interviewed. She is a senior research fellow at Harvard Business School (Lagace 2001). Understanding religion in today’s business is critical because you may win contracts with Buddhist and Muslims and feel the underlying religious current. Managers need to understand that a religious uprising in India can affect their plants operation there. Managing a business creates stress with others that can lead to poor interactions even hate and greed may develop. A religion based on love such as Christianity to work as a spiritual anchor and ensure best business practices (Lagace 2001).

Marketing E-Learning Services Essay

Synopsis: DigitalThink is breaking the mold of traditional classroom-based training by offering technology-based instruction to Global 2000 companies for their employees, managers, and customers. Trainees learn the material they need through interactive programs deployed to them by CD, company intranet, or Internet browser instead of in a centralized classroom with a live instructor. DigitalThink’s methods have been shown to compress training time by as much as 50%, and reduce the cost of development, maintenance, and delivery by 64%. Answer the following discussion questions submit to the Discussion Question Forum. 1. What are (a) the advantages and (b) the disadvantages of DigitalThink’s technology-based instruction over conventional classroom-based educational services? a) Advantages. Learning can be personalized for a variety of skill levels, which puts the learner, not the presenter, in charge of the learning process, lets the learner go at his/her own pace, and saves the company time and money. Technology-based instruction (TBI) has been shown to compress training time by as much as 50% and reduce the cost of development, maintenance, and delivery by 64%. Some specific advantages are: Instant, global development and updates. Convenient—anytime, anywhere access. Self-paced format accommodates all levels and schedules. More measurable than other forms of learning and training. Does not require time away from the office, customer engagements, or sales calls. Consistency of message (everyone gets the same information in the same way). Faster sales ramp-up time for new products. Higher completion rates. Engaging and interactive learning environment. Simulations allow learners to test their skills in a safe, non-threatening environment. Minimal technology requirements (Internet-connected computer and browser). b) Disadvantages. Does not have the social interaction with the other trainees that typically occurs when using centralized classroom-based training and facing the challenges presented by being a change agent in a well-established area like education. 2. Given your answer to question 1 above, (a) what are the key criteria DigitalThink should use in identifying prospective customers for its service, (b) what market segments meet your criteria, and (c) what are possible sales objections these segments might have that you have to address? a) Criteria – Criteria include having: Trainees with a variety of skill levels when they enter the organization, being geographically dispersed. New employees enter the company on an almost consistent basis through growth or turnover. The information that the employees need to know being process-based information. Immediate and specific feedback being important in the training. b) Market Segments – Some promising market segments that meet these criteria are high-technology business, chain retailors, financial services, health care, and government. c) Sales Objectives – The critical sales objectives that need to be overcome are cost, rate of change, what to do with the existing trainers, and â€Å"we don’t do that here.† Companies are worried that a) TBI will cost too much to develop, b) consistent changes within the company, industry and business environment will make the training program obsolete quickly. Companies are not sure what new function their subject matter experts who use the train with workforce can now perform, and they can have a negative attitude towards anything that is different from what has been successful in the past. Because e-learning is seen as so new, managers among DigitalThink’s prospective customers are often concerned about how their employees will  respond to this new, nontraditional training method. 3. Suppose a large international hotel chain asks DigitalThink to make a proposal to train its thousands of front desk clerks and receptionists. (a) How would you design an e-learning program to train them how to check in a customer? (b) How can DigitalThink demonstrate the points of difference or benefits to the hotel chain of its technology-based instruction to obtain a contract to design an e-learning program? a) The program would be designed so that the clerks and receptionists can access it during the day (for 1-2 hour periods) where they would be simulated work sessions where they would be interacting with customer. For example the receptionist would be taught the policies of the hotel, the procedures required to check in a guest, then they would be able to test their knowledge in the simulations. In addition, Digitalthink could include a mentor available as part of the program to do a webinar (software as a service). b) The ease of use of a e learning program are the main benefit. The technology based program can be accessed on demand when front desk clerks are available. Employees probably have a busy schedule so the program would be concise and comprehensive. If I was on the Digital think team I would stress the difference between our programs is that we are compact and will save the company money and time spent to educate their workforce in a flexible amount of time.

Tobacco, Alcohol, Drugs and Prostitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Tobacco, Alcohol, Drugs and Prostitution - Essay Example Several other drugs like cocaine affect work performance, particularly in decision-making, which directly affect production. Mike: Addressing the negative impacts of alcohol, Tobacco, drugs, and prostitution may not be a satisfying step because these aspects too have a role in improving the economy. Guell Robert argues in his book that despite the critics, the fundamentals of the world economy evolve very gradually. Currently, employment in the whole world goes on rising. Thus, the investment inferences of this are to seek for some secure, high yield investment opportunities. When the economy bottoms out, people can invest in food, energy, drinks, drugs, in entertainment elements, and emerging market countries as they bet against the dollar. John sides with Mike that regardless of the status of prostitution, whether legal or illegal, or where it is physically located, that is massage parlor, home, hotel, strip pub, or street, prostitution is probably similar to alcohol and other drugs since it will continue being in existance, be it legal or illegal. In fact, some research indicates that legalizing and standardizing prostitution can help to reduce HIV/AIDS infections. Guel argues that though it may not sound realistic to argue that prostitution somehow relates to the economy of a nation, it is true according to studies. Peter: From the four mentioned aspects, prostitution is the largest element of the entertainment industry worldwide. In 1994, this industry made over $30 billion in Southeast Asian states alone; Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Philippines. The International Labor Organization study shows that Thailand alone generated $22-24 billion incomes. Surprisingly, these four nations only make 6.1% of the world population (Guell 176). If prostitution was practiced at a similar rate per capita in the entire globe, revenues would add up to 360%billion from the year 1994, and most likely, they could have grown since then. Jack agreed with

Crisis communications- Honda Recall Research Paper

Crisis communications- Honda Recall - Research Paper Example It is vital to note that business apologizes differ from personal apologies because business apologizes are given in order to retain clients, customers and business relationships (Meiners, Ringleb & Edwards, 2008). A business apology is given to customers regardless of whether the error or mistake was preventable or not. In this case, the business apology will be given in writing through social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter, and verbally, through YouTube and television advertisements. Honda should follow strategic steps in providing its apologies to its customers. The first step is monitoring the presence of Honda’s products in the market and social media platforms. The second step is the engagement of customers and product reviewers immediately. In the apology, Honda should be honest and assume responsibility for its shortcomings. Most importantly, Honda should learn from its mistakes (Meiners, Ringleb & Edwards, 2008). The first thing that Honda should do before offering its apologies is to study or monitor its presence in the market and social platforms. In order to respond to the issue appropriately, Honda should be aware of the reviews provided by its clients and industry analysts. Once the firm has studied its presence and customer perceptions, it should apologize appropriately, based on the issues raised by the customers. This takes the firm to the next step, which is engagement with customers. Engaging with customers will enable Honda to obtain con structive feedback. Social media provides ideal platforms for offering apologizes. Social media such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube have combined audiences of approximately 1 billion people on a daily basis (Meiners, Ringleb & Edwards, 2008). The apology message should focus on customer satisfaction and the firm’s shortcoming. Honda should know the right time to offer its apology. The

Autism spectrum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Autism spectrum - Essay Example Some individuals with Autism disability may live an independent life while others have learning disability and need a specialist support. Individuals with autism disorder may also experience under-or over-sensitivity to touch, sound, light, smells, colours, and taste. Andrew’s autism characteristics Andrew demonstrates some characteristics of autism disability, which makes him fit into the criteria for autism. You may come across people like Andrew in the stores, in the park, in schools, or at work. Andrew does not look different from other students, yet he behaves and communicates in a way that seems mysterious, or enigmatic (Baron-Cohen, 2008). Andrew’s autism disability has ruthlessly impaired a number of disabilities many people tend to take for granted. For instance, the teacher seems not to understand that Andrew has autism spectrum that is the way, the teacher sometimes feels that she is in a dilemma. In other words, she founds Andrew’s behaviour disruptiv e to others and becomes frustrated that, Andrew is not willing to confront to the standards of not interrupting others or involving in the school’s social activities (Baron-Cohen, 2008). ... Whether the teacher and other pupils are sad or cheerful, it sounds and looks the same to Andrew. Additionally, Andrew shows little interest in what other pupils are doing. The teacher claims that Andrew does not join or involve himself with other school activities. He ignores the class timetable and instead decides to read an encyclopedia that he carried around, or even arranging the cut grass around the school ground into neat, straight lines (Baron-Cohen, 2008). In general, Andrew focuses his attention on doing minor and simple activities. Instead of attending classes, he could spend hours arranging all the cut grass in the field behind the school into neat, straight lines (Baron-Cohen, 2008). This obsessive and repetitive habit of doing one thing all the time refers to stereotyped behaviours. Andrew however has a characteristic of disagreeing with other people’s ideas and lacks correct measures of explaining himself. This is highly depicted in his behaviour since he shouts out during classes the words like â€Å"How do you know?† or â€Å"Why?† whenever the teacher makes a certain assertion of a fact (Baron-Cohen, 2008). The teacher could note that Andrew had a natural curiosity that she was unable to stifle. All these characteristics, which Andrew has the inability to understand speech and talk, trouble and difficulties in socializing with other pupils, and stereotyped interests and behaviours-are the hub of autism spectrum (Baron-Cohen, 2008). These autism characteristics hinder Andrew from making friends and being unable to fit in at home, at school, or even in public places. Andrew has a severe type of autism behaviour. However, there are some theories that explain that causes of autism behaviour. Theories

WPA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

WPA - Essay Example A good case in point is the misunderstanding on high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) ( Peeke, 2011). In this case, the author advocates for proper analysis of information available to the consumers to avoid consumer confusion. So as to prove her point, the writer uses various strategies in the quest. First, the author uses valid statistics from various sources to validate her arguments. For instance, Peeke (2011) indicates that fifty million US citizens use the diet system to lose weight, yet only a small fraction of these individuals actually lose weight. The percentage of the individuals who successfully lost weight stand at 5% ( Peeke, 2011). Additionally, Peeke (2011) uses the statistics from American Medical Association  to explain that HFCS is not a causative agent of obesity. With these statistics in mind, the author easily convinces its readers on the validity of her research. The author also uses symbolism to explain her findings. A good example is how she refers sweeteners to as â€Å"the devil’s candy† ( Peeke, 2011). This strategy easily brings out the effects of these sweeteners to its consumers. These strategies create a more effective argument as the author explains the inte nsity of the problem at hand, as well as convinces the reader to analyze the information presented to them on the various forms of media. The article commences with a report on the digital world and how news is readily available to its readers throughout the day. The information disseminated involves a variety of themes, health news amongst them. The beginning of the article is actually desirable as it emphasizes how individuals today are seeking information from sources available to them even without proper contemplation. The article has an introduction which introduces the themes to be discussed, the body of the essay which explains the extent to which individuals acquire information without

Discuss and evaluate societal and healthcare trends influencing Assignment

Discuss and evaluate societal and healthcare trends influencing healthcare systems and models within political environments including local, state, national, and global systems - Assignment Example Standards in western nations, for instance the US have vastly improved compared to standards in developing nations particularly in Africa. This can be attributed to better versus poor standards of living in western/ industrialized nations compared to developing countries respectively. As such, these issues affect the healthcare systems and models within political environments around the world. Developed countries deal with chronic degenerative diseases such as heart disease and various cancers while developing nations deal mostly with communicable and infectious diseases such as cholera (ODonnell, 2007, p 2820). Another important societal and healthcare trend is healthcare research and personnel. The healthcare sector has become a diverse sector today dealing with more issues rather than just preventing and treating diseases. As such, it has become imperative that healthcare and medical personnel be integrative people who can conduct and interpret research for healthcare purposes. However, the healthcare sector is understaffed making it difficult to provide adequate healthcare in local, state, national, and global systems (Skolnik & Skolnik, 2012). In conclusion, the issues discussed above among others are societal and healthcare trends influencing healthcare systems and models within political environments including local, state, national, and global systems and should be addressed to achieve a responsive and efficient healthcare industry globally. Learning.

Celestial Women beneath a Mango Tree Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Celestial Women beneath a Mango Tree - Essay Example One such painting is that of the ‘Celestial Woman beneath a Mango Tree’, an exquisite piece of art with its sublime antiquity awaits interpretation since its formation and continues unveiling the mysteries and social conventions as well as intricacies of 11th century India. The painting, â€Å"Celestial Woman beneath the Mango Tree† is actually inspired from the sandstone sculptor at the Jain Temple situated in Madhya Pradesh or Southern Uttar Pradesh of India and the sculptor was made during the mid 9th Century. This piece of art is an exquisite example of bracket art genre and was used to connect the pillar with the ceiling. Original structure of the temple contained four such art pieces giving an expression of joyous atmosphere putting their glance upon the devotees from four corners of the temple and gracing the minds of the devotees glancing upward with their auspicious presence. The divine lady is poised under a mango tree and ignorant about the monkeys perching on it. The lines of the masterpiece are bold and significant uses of the primary colours are evident. The dominant use of the blue colour with a shade of deep to light relates the picture to the celestial realm. The red fruits and yellow flowers are significant and act as a genuine eye-catcher. The motif of the painting is clear enough to support the voluptuous figurine and the ornaments and the features of the woman are distinct, sharp and also well bred amid the play of light and shade. According to the ancient Indian myth and lore, the laughter and of a lady was held responsible for the blossom of mango. Here the deity evidently symbolizes fertility and in its iconic representation, the deity is symbolic to motherhood.   

Sports equipment Essay Example for Free

Sports equipment Essay In this paper I argue that the globalisation of sport by international sports corporations, the media and sporting celebrities have through advertising altered the sporting landscape by imparting predefined and specific cultural and social meanings to the sports consumer. Abstract: Highly successful professional sports teams attract heavyweight corporate sponsorship deals and wide ranging media coverage that further broadens their supporter base. The subsequent globalisation of sporting clubs allows sports marketers to target sports consumers through media advertising to convey commercial messages and specific cultural meanings. Particular attention is focused on Nike and Manchester United and the precise use of sports celebrities to promote and endorse sporting goods/apparel. The transfer of meaning from the constituted world and sports celebrity to consumer goods and then to the individual consumer is analysed and discussed. Moreover, the social importance and cultural identities given to the consumer by the iconic celebrity sports star constitutes an attractive culture the sports consumer wants to be in possession of. This paper further explores and discusses the role of corporations and their association with advertising in a commercial-cultural nexus and how they are able to sell a way of life to the sports fan. Additionally, the advertising techniques used by corporations to create iconic sports stars and global brands are discussed as to how this effects the consumer and the traditional sporting landscape. Essay: In a culture preoccupied world, people from all walks of life are obsessed with the celebrity. In particular, the celebrity sportsman and sportswoman are amongst the highest profile individuals. Collectively, we are captivated by sport stars’ lifestyles, love lives, earning power and skill. It is from these characteristics that people want to have some form of connection with the sporting celebrity. The globalisation of sport by international sports corporations, advertising corporations, the media and sporting celebrities have created an environment for sports advertising to  flourish as an industry that is intent to monopolise the market with sporting goods and apparel. The direct relationship between the way sports organisations market their goods and how people consume goods is often considered by many commentators to be symbolic sports branding that shapes the desires and actions of consumers. Holt contends that for advertising to work properly a ‘symbiotic relationship’ is essential between the ‘market prerogatives’ and the ‘cultural frameworks’ that consumers acquaint, understand and interact with market offerings (2002, p. 71). With the main focus of globalisation and increased industry profit, sports corporations seek to become ‘cultural engineers’ to organise how people think and feel through celebrity endorsed consumer sports goods (Holt 2002, p. 71). In this paper I argue that all-powerful sports corporations such as Nike and Manchester United use endorsements by sports celebrities with sophisticated advertising techniques. Their objective is to seduce and manipulate consumers into participating in the accumulation of commodities that oversees the indoctrination of culture, values and social identity. Whats more, I will further contend that through the globalisation of sport and the mass production of sports merchandise, sport corporations develop specific meanings and a set of techniques that rationalises consumer culture as a commodity. Also, I assert that sports advertising agencies exploit sports stars and their ‘aura of authenticity’ so that they themselves and their products become cultural icons. The resultant increased role for the sports star into advertising moves the sporting field boundaries that effectively alters the sporting landscape. I further contend that the imbued cultural meaning from sports corporations to the sports consumer by way of celebrity endorsements leads to new variants of sport being played. Nike’s three-a-side soccer competition is used as evidence to support my claim that sports corporations combined with celebrity advertising effectively alters the way some sports are played. Therefore, modifying the cultural sporting landscape. In the end, the rapidly increasing entity of sports globalisation relies on the sports celebrity to sell a way of life to sports fan/consumer via a commercial-cultural nexus. This not only transfers organisational meaning and culture to the consumer but also creates immense wealth for sports corporations, advertising agencies and the sports star. With the realisation of the power associated with television as an advertising medium, it quickly went beyond radio, newspaper and cinema to be the most influential medium of mass communication. The television has provided a round-table for the sporting consumer to develop intimate, visually informed relationships with sporting celebrities (Andrews Jackson, 2001). Considering Andrews Jackson’s common but insightful cliche, ‘the medium is the message’, the television has come to the fore front of advertising with identifiable sports celebrities encouraging the audience (sports consumer) to develop a ‘faux intimacy’ (2001, p. 3). Consequently, advertising on television and in most media forums has become celebrity saturated (Andrews Jackson, 2001). The fostering of sports celebrities as maintained by Andrews Jackson has made it possible for sports corporations to link the culture of the celebrity with consumer capitalism to take advantage of the dual roles occupied by celebrities as both products (commodities) and processes (celebrity endorsement) (2001, p. 4). In doing this, advertising agencies and sports corporations are able to exploit sports consumers. Andrews Jackson (2001) agree with McCracken (1989, 1986) to assert that the optimum goal of advertising agencies and sports corporations is to ensure that celebrities pass on and orchestrate the various facets of a predefined sports culture to foster a ‘highly visible celebrity identity’ that the consumer can recognise and identify with. In a sense, these sports agencies and corporations have carefully coordinated plans of cultural procedures. The growing media technology such as satellite television and the internet has further accelerated the globalisation of sport and with it the growth and expansion of sports corporations. The ever expanding sports corporations are desperate to associate their brands and products with the unique ‘aura of authenticity’ that is found within the celebrity sports star, so that their products are endowed and visualised as cultural icons. Today, global sports events are indelibly associated with wide media coverage that sees the iconic sports celebrity be portrayed as role models and in high regard (Smart, 2007). Importantly, Smart points out the desires and aspirations of consumers to be similar if not the same as their sporting celebrity icons and also claims that global sport is now increasing important to the promotion of commodity consumption (2007, p. 130). As shown, the contemporary landscape of advertising plays an important role in cultural practices and the process of globalisation of sport. As a result, contemporary social life is determined by advertising moreover, it is defined by it (Jackson Andrews, 2004). Additionally, Jackson Andrews (2004) assert that advertising is a key process that connects meaning and language to culture, thereby constituting social identities in specific contexts (2004, p. 7). The significance of celebrity endorsers can be found in their salaries. Jackson Andrews (2004) highlight that sports stars earn more from endorsements that they do from their sporting profession. Studies have documented and as pointed out by Andrews Jackson (2001), endorsing sports celebrities were present in 11 percent of television advertisements during 1995 that received more than US$1 billion dollars. Throughout the second half of the twentieth century the uncontrollable clandestine relationship between television and sport grew to irresistibly influence the meaning and understanding of sport culture that left the end product of sport being media-driven by celebrities for entertainment (Andrews Jackson 2001, p. 7). Today, sports are constructed, mediated, advertised and seen as contests between identifiable and recognisable individuals or teams of individuals (Andrews Jackson, 2001). Andrews Jackson maintain that sports fans that watch and experience sport develop an intimate attachment with these sporting individuals (2001, p. 7). Sports corporations and advertising agencies intentionally take advantage of this developed intimacy to transform sporting events and the sports celebrity into stories with characters consisting of heroes and villains (Andrews Jackson, 2001). Moreover, Andrews Jackson recognise that the constructed personalities of the heroes and villains are integral to sports advertising that create a purposeful contemporary sporting culture (2001, p.7). The sports celebrity occupies and possesses many complex roles such as elite athletes, entertainers, marketable commodities and role models within the global cultural economy (Andrews Jackson 2001, p. 9). In addition, sport has become a highly commercialised and a capitalist culture. The sporting celebrity as described by Andrews Jackson is a commodity of commercial culture that is forcibly imbued with large corporate values and culture thattries to initiate and intensify sports consumers desires, identification and cultural awareness/development (2001, p. 9). As such, the sporting celebrity has become highly ‘systematized’ with expanded institutional boundaries that effectively increases their sporting fields that allows them to operate as ‘cultural and economic agents’ (Andrews Jackson 2001, p. 7). Accordingly, altering the sports field, equates to altering the sporting landscape through advertising and endorsement of products by celebrities. In understanding the importance of celebrities in the midst of sports globalisation, Andrews Jackson assert that celebrities are significant public entities who are responsible for the formation of meaning and ideologies that offer contextually grounded maps for the sports consumer as they endeavour to gain their individualism and identity (2001, p. 1). What’s more, Andrews Jackson note Marshall’s 1997 insightful understanding of the celebrity to be a descriptor incorporating various forms of public individuality including, hero, leader, famous and star from which the celebrity exercises within popular culture (2001, p. 2). Whats more, the dynamism of the complex celebrity indicates that individual celebrities can and frequently do move back and forth between these individual states making them all the more marketable to endorse sporting goods (2001, p. 2). Accordingly, the role of the media to promote sports stars to the status of celebrity is crucial for sports corporations when deciding on particular celebrities to convey their cultural message to the consumer (Andrews Jackson, 2001). In looking at and analysing Michael Jordan as an athlete and a sports celebrity, his greatness is not only confined to the wooden confines of the basketball court. Considered by McDonald Andrews (2001) as the first truly marketable sport celebrity, Jordan has amassed unimaginable marketing conquests. Jordan’s endorsement of Nike sport shoes and apparel have seen him earn unmatchable capital accumulation, US$45 million in 1998 (more money than he received for playing basketball) (McDonald Andrews, 2001). McDonald Andrews further highlight that Nike made in excess in of US$3 billion from sales on the back of Jordan while Gatorade more than doubled its revenue in 1991 to make an impressive US$1. 5 billion (McDonald Andrews, 2001). It can be noted from these statistics that contemporary cultures are constructed by sporting corporations and advertising agencies that allow the personalities, lifestyles and sporting cultures of sports celebrities to encourage sports consumers to ‘be like mike’. Consequently, McDonald Andrews point out that Gatorade increased its market domination of the nutritional sports drink to an 80 percent share (2001, p. 1). As can be seen, sports celebrities have referent power that enables them to influence and develop sporting cultures in consumers. Advertising agencies and sports corporations view this as a valuable advantage to increase the sports cultural economy (McDonald Andrews, 2001). Pointed out by McDonald Andrews, Bob Dorfman from the advertising agency Foote passed comments to suggest that ‘Jordan is such a superhuman talent that everybody aspires to his level of performance†¦Everybody wants to be that good and have that much success’ (2001, p. p24). With Jordan’s amazing skills and talent the Jordan name produced an amazing amount of ‘Jordan Wannabes’ all wearing Jordan branded shoes and apparel (McDonald Andrews 2001, p.24). These ‘Jordan Wannabes’ could be seen playing street basketball trying to ‘be like Mike’ and slam dunk the basketball. This form of street basketball differed in rules and in the way it was played from the original indoor game. Essentially, the street rules basketball transformed the sporting landscape. Consequently, sports consumers with altered and newly developed cultures and values are playing the sport differently on different sporting fields with newly acquired sports apparel to effectively change the sporting landscape. The transference of values from Nike to Jordan to the sports consumer not only imbues an altered culture, but it also allows the sports consumer to create their own individual identity (McCracken, 1989). As such, the consumer is viewed to adopt the values and culture of the sports celebrity to be more in line with Jordan’s own and that of Nike (McDonald Andrews, 2001). Smart (2005) maintains that sport stars are very visible to the public and potential consumers because of their on field skills and the associated media coverage for publicly demonstrating such a high level of talent. These sport stars are subsequently in the sights of advertising agencies and sporting corporations to endorse sporting goods and apparel (Smart, 2005). As a result, the so called sporting star is transformed into a sporting celebrity that at times may or may not be directly linked with their team or their sport. For example, the commercials of Michael Jordan endorsing the ‘Air Jordan’ shoe by jumping to the basket to the sound of jet engines, ‘constituted the beginning of his cultural ascent to iconic status’ (Smart 2005, p. 113). Although the advertisement made no mention of the ‘Air Jordan’ shoes, the image and the subsequent culture of Jordan in the air combined with his cultural on court athleticism, was enough to persuade and influence consumers to make the ‘Air Jordan’ line of shoes the all time best seeling (Smart 2005, p. 113). The globalisation of sport has always been associated with advertising and as highlighted by Jackson et al. (2004), advertising has been defined in many ways due the ever changing nature of advertising. However, Jackson et al.state that advertising has at all times been strategic within the culture and commodification of sports advertising (2004, p. 1). More to the point Jackson et al. (2004) claim that cultural commodities shape one’s experience and identities which parallels Smart’s (2005) claim that sports celebrities are able to influence and persuade consumers. Additionally, Jackson et al. (2004) argues that advertising is at the forefront of the global economy and post-modern promotional culture. Taking this into account, advertising plays a key role in consumer culture and within the culture of representation and identity formation (Jackson et al. 2004, p.2). Moreover, I put forward that advertising has altered the sporting landscape with predefined cultural meanings by way of celebrity endorsements. The eventual transference of cultural meaning from the advertising agency, endorsed by the sports celebrity and passed on to the consumer not only creates individualised identities and cultural meaning for consumers, but also changes the way sports consumers play sport. As highlighted by Ross, in 2002 Nike promoted a ‘three-a-side sudden-death’ soccer tournament ‘in a cage inside an abandoned tanker’ that highlighted the games elite branded player’s skills, talents and marketability (2004a, p.68). Nike exploited the games stars and consumers by focusing on the individual feats of the elite individual stars rather than on a team focus (Ross, 2004a). Additionally, Nike put into full swing three-a-side tournaments all over the world for teenagers. The immense popularity for this variant of the game altered the way the game was played, where the game was played and therefore changed the cultural sporting landscape. There was no mention of the clothing or footwear worn by the sports celebrities depicted in the commercials rather, Nike concentrated on the three-a-side game and its celebrities to transmit and instil Nike’s corporate cultural meanings on the sports fan and potential consumer to purchase Nike merchandise and construct an individual identity. During the globalisation of sport growth years of the early 1990’s, Manchester United in an effort to increase revenue of more than just gate receipts, tried to convert fans into customers thorough the selling of sports merchandise. The end result for Manchester United saw an increase of fans to more than 25 nations, television deals in 135, its own fashion label and three mega stores (Ross 2004b, p, 88). Consequently, the outcome of the globalisation of Manchester United saw it grow from a soccer club to a global brand. Evidence of being such a global brand is in 1992 when Manchester United and Nike decided to release new playing strips that were continually replaced almost every year. Although, the Nike ‘swoosh’ at this stage was indelibly associated with child labour, it did not stop the fans and consumers buying Manchester United sports appeal (Ross, 2004b). Nike and Manchester United through specific advertising with sports celebrities were able impart their morally and aesthetic pleasing culture onto the sports consumer combined with that of the sport celebrities own values and culture. Ross quite rightly points out that there was much public disgust and rage towards Nike for the use of child labour, however, he further claims that because of the silence and possibly even ignorance of the endorsing sports celebrity, Nike and other sports corporations were able to keep the entire celebrity/branding/sweatshop system of the sports goods industry from unravelling (2004b, p. 93). Fundamentally, it is the values and contemporary culture passed on by celebrities that are exploited by sports corporations such as Nike and Adidas that are transmitted and passed onto the consumer (Ross, 2004b). These imposed values and cultures that the sports consumer takes on allows for individual identities to be seen and heard along with their new culture. Smart formulates the globalisation of sport with consumer culture to suggest that ‘the development of modern sport is bound up with processes of economic and cultural transformation associated with the global diffusion of capitalist forms of consumption’ (2007, p.113). Similarly, the chairman of Nike parallels Smart’s assertions by stating that ‘sport was at the hart of contemporary culture and increasingly defined the culture of the world’ (Smart 2007, p. 114). It is not without reason to put forward that professional sport, the media and corporate sponsorship are all linked together to forge massive profit on the backs of sports celebrities and their endorsement of merchandise. More accurately, Smart refers to this as the ‘golden triangle’ that results with sport being directly coupled with advertising and celebrity endorsements (2007, p.114). Such a link between the sports celebrity, advertising and sport itself highlights the importance of globalisation of sport plays in the economy of the consumer, sports corporations, advertising agencies and the various forms of the media. To be more precise, the globalisation of sport is closely linked with the ‘economic interests and the promotion of consumer culture’ (Smart 2007, p. 114). Sport poses a popular culture appeal and a sense of realism that sporting corporations aim to exploit to increase consumer capital accumulation. The global brands of sports clubs and celebrities combined with global marketing and the promotion of sports merchandise with ‘iconic celebrity sporting figures’ only further contributes to the growth of the supporter and consumer cultures (Smart 2007, p. 114). One of the main purposes for making certain sports and sports organisations global is to make and increase profits. The increased level in spectators and consumers attracts media and advertising interest that further increases the demand for sports equipment and specialised sports clothing that is unashamedly endorsed by sporting celebrities. The large economic growth experienced by sporting corporations innately constructs cultural global sports brands that the fanatical sports fan can identify with and desires (Smart, 2007). For example, Nike’s ‘Air Jordan’ line of shoes endorsed by Jordan himself transformed Nike’s profile, basketball itself and the nature of sports representation that consequently altered the culture of the consumer and the sporting landscape (Smart 2007; McCracken 1989). Smart (2007) points out that sports corporations predicted and understood the effects of globalising sport and the endorsement by sporting celebrities would only increase their revenue. Therefore, is easy to make the assumption that this understanding can be equated to McCracken’s (1986, 1989) theories that symbolic properties and cultural meanings possessed by the celebrity endorser and those of the constituted world are transferred to the consumer goods and then passed onto the consumer. This results in new identities for consumers as well as new or modified cultures. Potentially, the newly formed cultures can change the sporting landscape and place by way of altering the attire worn by participants and also by changing the way the game is played. For instance, backyard or even beach cricket is not played on the traditional field nor do the participants wear traditional attire for cricket. It can be said that these participants are influenced by sporting corporations to buy specialised sporting equipment (plastic bats and stumps) and clothing (celebrity endorsed clothing) that is clearly an action of acculturation brought on by sporting corporations and advertising agencies. Rather than one singular cultural identity constructed from the globalisation of sport there are many and varied cultures. Similarly noted by Mitchell, the cultural sporting landscape becomes quite complex with the introduction of different cultures (2000, p. 28). Moreover, Mitchell adds that the ‘morphology of landscape’ constantly creates and recreates the places and landscapes where people play sport (2000, p. 28). This is echoed through the culture of consumer capitalism and the accumulation of sporting goods and apparel. Hence, the modified clothes and sporting equipment endorsed by the culturally endowed sporting celebrity permits the transfer of cultural meaning and symbolic properties to the consumer (McCracken, 1989). Bertilsson (2007) has the same opinion that sporting celebrities fashion culture and meaning to the consumer to emphasises the value and meaning channelled into brands (2007, p. 2). Pettigrew puts forward that, sport by its physical nature is a form of consumption that is able to provide ‘insight into the role of consumption in human social life’ such as sports advertising and the accumulation of sports consumer goods (2001, p. 1). What’s more, Pettigrew (2001) contests that the consumption of sport including sports advertising and consumer accumulation of sporting merchandise attributes to individual lifestyles and social networks. Moreover, the globalisation and ‘marketisation’ of sport has made sport extremely commercialised that places the sports consumer and fan at a disadvantage because of the over exposure of celebrity sporting endorsements that effectively mould and shape ones social life and culture (Pettigrew 2001, p. 2). Many commentators including Pettigrew (2001) consider sport to be vital to culture and as such, sport has been directly associated with the development of self-identity due to the active lifestyles of people following and participating in sport. For that reason, the promotion of sports merchandise by sports celebrities are able to create social interactions (aided by culturally effective advertising themes), with the sports consumer (Pettigrew, 2001). Such employment of sporting themes and sporting celebrities in advertisements facilitates social interaction that portrays an appropriate context for product consumption that allows for self awareness and identity development to take place for the sports consumer. Importantly, advertising agencies identify the potential social interactions and use sporting celebrities to convey precise emotions, values and culture that represent the needs and desires of sports consumers. For example, the Nike brand has become so trusted, consumers are willing to pay top money for what they believe and determine to be superior quality, style and reliability (East, 1998). Nike through its ‘Just Do It’ advertisements with their many celebrity endorsers was able to influence vast amounts of sporting and non-sporting consumers to purchase their footwear. East points out that 80 percent of the running shoes sold in the US were in fact never used for the intended sporting activities that they were designed to do, thus effectively changing the sporting landscape and sporting culture (1998, p. 2). The iconic status Nike was able to develop for itself tended to focus not on the products it was advertising but rather on the celebrity wearing the product (East, 1998). Through its celebrities, Nike was able to articulate to its consumers that Nike products were cool (East, p. 2). East (1998) suggests that the success of Nike’s campaign is attributable to portraying a culture of quality. Moreover, East states that Nike was able to reassure its customers on quality and perfection by using the following sport stars: Bo Jackson, John McEnroe and Michael Jordan (2001, p. 2). For instance, East suggests that celebrity endorsements appeal to consumers sense of belonging and ‘hipnes’ that led to the prophecy ‘if you want to be hip, wear Nike; if you are hip, you are probably wearing Nike’ (East 1998, p. 2). Nike’s sporting celebrities were able to impart desirability into owing Nike shoes that not only changed the sporting landscape but it also developed new cultures based on sports corporations and advertising agencies values. Advertising plays an integrating role in cultural practices and the process of globalisation (Jackson et al. , 2004). Advertisements of sport generally contain some form of sports setting, imagery and celebrities to promote sports clothing, sports video games and sports equipment that contributes to the development of the globalised culture of commodification and consumption (Hilliard, 2005). In addition, Hilliard (2005) asserts that sports’ advertising encompasses economy, politics and the media. Furthermore, he notes that sports corporations by way of their association with sport sell ‘a way of life based on consumption’ by means of sports celebrity endorsements (2005, p. 4). The use of sports imagery is essential for sports advertising to target specific product categories such as clothing lines and video games. Advertising agencies generally use specific techniques to persuade the intended meaning of sport to ‘rub off’ on their merchandise: Firstly, celebrity athletes are presented in ‘non-threatening’ relationships so as to connect with the intended audience; Secondly, advertisers represent ‘sport as a site for hedonistic consumption’; Thirdly, advertisers continually make reference to sports cliches and slogans that are generally disseminated broadly within the national or territorial culture; and lastly, sporting corporations sponsor sport so as to receive the ‘official sponsor’ tag that appears beside the actual sport logo (Hilliard 2005, p.33). Additionally, the recognition and star appeal of the virtual super-human athletic feats of sports celebrities are captured and transposed into the form of video and arcade games. As suggested by Hilliard, the advertising of sports video games may feed into the culture of sports fans of not participating in sport and thus, altering and transforming the sporting field/landscape from outdoors to the lounge room and subsequent TV (Hilliard, 2005). In conclusion, the globalisation of sport occupies an important part in the economy for the consumer, sports corporations, advertising agencies and the media. The ‘golden triangle’ as described by Smart (2007) illustrates the tactics sports corporations and advertising agencies use to exploit the consumer through intelligent marketing strategies and celebrity endorsements. The resultant symbolic sports branding not only shapes the desires and actions of the sports consumer but also transforms consumer culture and the sporting landscape. Furthermore, the globalisation of sport has seen it loose its playful character while its traditional playing field has been extended by the celebrity sports star to be a global media spectacle with a sizeable financial economy. Advertising as stated by McCracken, is the ‘conduit through which meaning constantly pours from the culturally constituted world to consumer goods’ that allows sports celebrities to become idolised and seen as role models (1989, p. 6). It is from these attributes that sport celebrities and advertising agencies are able promote sports merchandise using the sporting celebrity’s lifestyle and sporting culture to influence and develop sporting cultures in consumers. What’s more, the ‘golden triangle’ has altered the sporting landscape with predefined cultural meanings on the back of celebrity endorsements. The advertising technique of not mentioning the actual product but rather concentrating on the sports star and the actions of the sports star indelibly creates sporting icons and cultural meaning for the sports fan/consumer. Such exploitation by sports corporations allows them to focus on changing popular sports in both rules and the playing field so that the sports consumer will be subdued and manipulated into the capitalist consumption of sports goods that governs the indoctrination of culture, values and social identity. Moreover, the imbued culture and status of wearing and being seen in a particular sports brand combined with the endorsement by celebrities creates a level of trust for consumers. It is this built up trust that consumers are willing to pay top dollar for what they believe is superior quality and reliability, although, in some instances child labour may have been used. The ‘aura of authenticity’ of sports stars helps sporting corporations to achieve significant profit margins and significant wealth for themselves that further contributes to the globalised culture of commodification and consumption of sport. The immense wealth created by the globalisation of sport for sports corporations, advertising agencies and the sports star has seen sport become a highly capitalist culture. Noting this, sport and sports advertising is vital to the development of consumer identity, lifestyles and social acceptance from the accumulation of sports merchandise and also participating in sport. The unambiguous celebrity advertising techniques allow sports corporations such as Nike and Manchester United to create and sell a way of life based on consumer consumption to generate meaning, culture and identity for the consumer that can potentially change the sporting landscape at the same time. Bibliography: Andrews, DL Jackson, SJ 2001, ‘Sport Stars: The Cultural Politics of Sporting Celebrity’, in Andrews, DL Jackson, SJ (ed. ), Introduction: sport celebrities, public culture, and private experience, Routledge, London, pp. 1-19. Bertilsson, J 2007, The Enculturation of Young Consumers, Proceedings of the Nordic Consumer Policy Research Conference 2007, viewed 13 May 2008, . East, S 1998.

Blastocystis Hominis and Colorectal Cancer

Blastocystis Hominis and Colorectal Cancer Blastocystis hominis (B.hominis) is the most common unicellular protozoan parasite that is found in the human gastrointestinal tract (Windsor et al. 2002). The prevalence of B. hominis in both developed and developing countries is reported to be up to 10% and 50% respectively (Wong et al. 2008; Stenzel and Boreham. 1996). On the other hand, B. hominis shows a diverse morphologies which include vacuolar, granular, amoeboid and cyst forms (Zierdt. 1988). Furthermore, B. hominis isolates from human and animals have been reported to exhibit an extensive genetic and karyotypic heterogeneity (Parkar et al. 2010; Stensvold et al. 2009; Tan et al. 2009; Dogruman-Al et al. 2009; Abe. 2004; Yoshikawa et al. 2004). Although many researchers have attempted to identify the pathogenesis of B. hominis in human hosts, however the pathogenic potential of B. hominis has remained controversial as it is present in both symptomatic and asymptomatic individual (Tan. 2008; Garcia. 2007; Tan et al. 2002). The gastrointestinal symptoms that are associated with B. hominis infection include diarrhea, vomiting, anorexia, flatulence, abdominal discomfort and other associated non-specific symptoms. To date, experiments have shown that rats that are inoculated with human B. hominis isolate have demonstrated an elevation in oxidative damage (Chandramathi et al. 2009). Many studies have been done on the genetic and molecular characterization of B. hominis isolates derived from human as well as animal. Recent molecular characterization of Blastocystis isolates suggested that there are 13 subtypes (ST1-ST13) which have been isolated from mammalian, reptilian, avian and amphibian hosts (U. Parkar et al. 2010; Stensvold et al. 2007a; Noà «l et al. 2005, 2003; Yoshikawa et al. 2004b). Recently, many studies have been done to determine the pathogenic potential of different Blastocystis subtypes in human hosts by genotypic analysis as well as molecular characterization of B. hominis isolated from symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals (Dominguez-Mà ¡rquez et al. 2009; Eroglu et al. 2009; Jones et al. 2009; Hussein et al. 2008; Tan et al. 2008). Nevertheless, only limited numbers of studies have shown correlation between the different B. hominis subtypes on the pathogenesis in human hosts (Hussein et al. 2008). Infectious agents such as bacteria, virus and parasites, often have an oncogenic potential. The International Agency on Research of Cancer (IARC) has estimated that 16% of cancer worldwide is caused by infection, including parasites. However, there has been no research done on the association between B. hominis infection and colorectal cancer. A recent study has suggested that B. hominis may possess the ability to induce the growth of colorectal cancer cell lines by inhibiting the apoptotic effect of colon cancer cells. Furthermore, the antigens that are isolated from B. hominis were postulated to be able to promote the proliferation of cancer cells via down-regulation of host immune cellular responses (Chandramathi et al. 2010). In general, inflammation is activated by a variety of stimuli such as trauma, bacterial/viral/parasitic infections, endotoxemia and heating (Ley, 2001; Hart, 2002). Inflammation caused by infectious agents such as parasites will cause an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as nitric oxide, hydrogen peroxide and superoxide as a consequence of cell mediated phagocyte dependent immune response (Rosen et al. 1995). A persistent and chronic inflammatory response can be detrimental to human host as it can produce a chronic damage by releasing a variety of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines which then leads to mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, neurodegenerative disorder, inflammatory bowel syndrome and atherosclerosis (Kà ¼hn et al. 1993; Perry et al. 1998; Ludewig et al. 2002; Shacter et al. 2002). Several studies have shown correlation between the inflammation that is caused by infectious agents such as parasites and the development of cancer in huma n (Fitzpatrick. 2001). Thus, it is important for us to evaluate the immunomodulation, cytopathic and cellular cytokines responses as a result of B. hominis infection especially in colorectal carcinomas. Since B. hominis is often present in most stool cultures, it is pertinent to investigate the association between B. hominis infection and the development of colorectal cancer in the gastrointestinal tract of infected host system. B. hominis isolated from an asymptomatic individual could facilitate the proliferation and growth of cancer cells and has the potential to down-regulate the host immune response (Chandramathi et al. 2010). However, only limited numbers of studies have shown the cytopathic effects and cellular cytokine responses of Blastocystis hominis infection (Puthia et al. 2008; Long et al. 2001; Walderich et al. 1998). These studies only investigated on Interleukin 8 and Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) which are pro-inflammatory cytokines. We hypothesized that B. hominis infection in human host system has a potential carcinogenic effect and could influence the growth of colorectal cancer cells especially in colorectal cancer patients and that the B. hominis subtypes may exert varying degree of pathogenecity. Therefore, in this study, the differences between the effects of solubilized antigen of B. hominis from both symptomatic and asymptomatic isolates on the cell viability in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs, which represent the immune cells) as well as colorectal cancer cell line was evaluated. Besides that, the gene expression of cytokine, apoptotic mediators, and nuclear transcriptional factors in response to the symptomatic and asymptomatic B. hominis antigen in both PBMCs and colorectal cancer cell was compared. The knowledge and understanding in the association between Blastocystis hominis infection and colorectal cancer as well as the role of various cytokines involved in the tumour progression may provide an insight into prevention and/or development of new immune-therapeutical strategies to combat colorectal cancer. OBJECTIVE The objectives of the present study are:- To study the effects of solubilized antigen of B. hominis from symptomatic and asymptomatic individual isolates on viability of both the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs, which represent the normal immune cells) as well as colorectal cancer cells (HCT 116, colorectal cancer cell line). To investigate the gene expression of cytokine, transcriptional factors and apoptotic mediators such as interleukin 6, interleukin 8, tumour necrosis factor-ÃŽ ±, interferon gamma, nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cells, cathepsin B, transforming growth factor-ÃŽ ², and protein 53 upon exposure to B. hominis antigen in both the PBMCs and colorectal cancer cells MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample collection and axenization of Blastocystis hominis B. hominis was isolated from stool samples of symptomatic as well as asymptomatic individuals. The B. hominis cysts were then isolated from feacal sample using the Ficoll-Paque Technique according to Zaman and Khan (1994). The harvested cysts of B. hominis from both the symptomatic and asymptomatic individual isolates were washed in sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). The washed harvested cysts were cultured in Jones medium, supplemented with 10% of heat-inactivated horse serum and incubated at 37 °C in CO2 incubator (Suresh and Smith. 2004). Axenization was conducted after the isolates have been incubated for 2 to 3 days. Isolation of solubilized antigen from symptomatic and asymptomatic cultures The axenic B. hominis species were collected using Ficoll-Paque density gradient centrifugation method and the harvested parasites were resuspended in basal Jones medium without the addition of heat-inactivated horse serum. Then, the harvested organisms were lysed by sonication method and the homogenate was incubated at 4 °C, overnight. The homogenate was centrifuged at 13000xg for 15 minutes at 4 °C after the overnight incubation. The supernatant which contains the solubilized antigen of B. hominis was filter-sterilized and the protein concentration of the antigen was determined using Bradford assay (Bio-Rad, USA). Subtyping of Blastocystis isolates from symptomatic and asymptomatic cultures Genomic DNA Extraction: The genomic DNA of symptomatic and asymptomatic isolates of Blastocystis hominis were extracted from the 3 to 4 days old culture with QIAmp DNA stool mini kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) according to the manufacturers protocol. DNA Purity and Concentration: The genomic DNA yields were estimated using measurement of absorbance at 260nm and 280nm using a spectrophotometer. The ratio of absorbance at 260nm to 280nm determines the purity of the genomic DNA yielded. According to the manufacturers protocol, the ratio of 1.7-1.9 indicates that the DNA yields are pure. PCR Typing by STS Primers: The genotype of B. hominis was determined by using PCR amplification with subtype-specific sequence tagged site (STS) primers (SB83, SB155, SB227, SB332, SB340, SB336, and SB337). The PCR reaction mixtures (20  µl of total volume) consisted of PCR buffer, 2.5 U/ µl of Taq DNA polymerase (Fermantas, SB38), 1.5 mM MgCl2, 1.25  µM of dNTPs (Fermantas, RO191), 0.5 pmol of forward primer, 0.5 pmol of reverse primer, and 1.0  µl of the DNA samples. In addition, the PCR conditions were set as follows: one cycle denaturing at 94 °C for 3 min, 30 cycles including denaturing at 94 °C for 30 seconds, annealing at 56.3 °C for 30 seconds, extending at 72 °C for 60 s, , and additional cycle with a 10 min chain elongation at 72 °C. The PCR products obtained were then electrophoresed in 1.5% agarose gel with 1X Tris-boric-EDTA (TBE) buffer. The fragments of the DNA were visualized using UV illuminator under UV light. The fragment sizes of the genomic DNA were confirmed with bands of a DNA ladder (50-1,000 bp DNA markers, Fermentas). Cultivation and collection of HCT116 Human colorectal carcinoma cell line, HCT116, was cultured in 25 cm ³ culture flask containing 5 ml of RPMI 1640 growth medium, supplemented with 5% of FBS, 2mM L-glutamine, 100 U/ml penicillin-streptomycin, and 2.5 ÃŽ ¼g/ml fungizone. The HCT116 cell line was then incubated in a CO2 incubator set at 100% humidity, atmosphere containing 5% of CO2 and a temperature of 37 °C. Prior to the introduction of antigen from Blastocystis hominis isolates, the cells were harvested from the substratum of the culture flask by using 0.25% trypsin-EDTA. The harvested cells were then washed with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) thrice and resuspended in RPMI 1640 growth medium before introducing the solubilized antigen of Blastocystis hominis from symptomatic and asymptomatic isolates. Isolation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) PBMCs were collected from fresh human blood sample (12 ml) in sterile EDTA tubes. The PBMCs were then isolated from the blood sample by using Histopaque ®-1077 (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) according to the density gradient centrifugation method (Boyum. 1974). The isolated PBMCs were then washed with PBS thrice and resuspended in 5 ml of RPMI 1640 growth medium, supplemented with 10% of FBS, 2mM L-glutamine, 100 U/ml penicillin-streptomycin, and 2.5 ÃŽ ¼g/ml fungizone in a 25 cm ³ culture flask prior to the introduction of solubilized antigen of Blastocystis hominis isolates. Introduction of the solubilized symptomatic and asymptomatic derived Blasto antigen into PBMCs and colorectal cancer cell line, HCT116 Harvested HCT116 cells (1 x 103 cells per well) in 100 ÃŽ ¼l of RPMI growth medium with 5% FBS and freshly isolated PBMCs (5 x 104 cells per well) in 100 ÃŽ ¼l of RPMI growth medium with 10% FBS were seeded into 96 well plates. After the overnight incubation in a CO2 incubator containing 5% CO2 at 37 °C, Blasto-antigen of B. hominis from symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals at final concentration ranging from 0.001 to 10ÃŽ ¼g/ml was added to each well containing the PBMCs and HCT116 cells and were further incubated for 48 hours. Then, the cell proliferation/viability was measured using the MTT assay (Mosmann. 1983). Quantitative Real-time Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (rtRT-PCR) Concentration of symptomatic and asymptomatic Blasto-antigen that yields the optimal proliferation and inhibition in the preliminary tests (MTT assay) was used to introduce into each culture flask containing PBMCs and HCT 116 cells respectively. For controls, PBS was introduced into both types of cells. After 48 hours of incubation, the RNA was isolated from the PBMCs and HCT 116 cells using Ambion RNAqueous Micro Kit (Ambion, CA, USA). The purified RNA obtained was then used to synthesize complementary DNA (cDNA) using High-Capacity RNA-to-cDNA kit (Applied Biosystems, USA) by the PCR method. Finally, Real-time reverse transcription PCR analysis was performed using inventoried primers (TaqMan ® Gene Expression Assays, Applied Biosystems). In this study, the genes of interest were IL-6, IL-8, tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-ÃŽ ±), nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-ÃŽ ºB), interferon gamma (IFN-ÃŽ ³), protein 53 (p53), transforming growth factor be ta (TGF-ÃŽ ²), and cathepsin B (CTSB). The PCR reaction will be prepared according to the protocol that is generated by StepOneTM Software v2.0. Statistical Analysis In order to analyze the real-time RT-PCR gene expressions, the à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  CT value of the treated samples with symptomatic and asymptomatic Blasto-antigen was compared against the non-treated sample (control with PBS) using the Students t test. A P value of 0.05 was considered to be the minimum threshold of significance. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS In the present study, the symptomatic and asymptomatic isolates were genotyped by PCR amplification using the well-known seven sets of STS primers. The extracted DNA of symptomatic isolate showed positive amplification with SB83 and thus determined as subtype 1 (Yoshikawa et al. 2004). Nevertheless, the extracted DNA of asymptomatic isolate did not show any positive amplification with all the seven sets of STS primers that was used in this study. Hence, it is postulated that the asymptomatic isolate may be subtype 8 to 13 which was not amplified by the STS primers used in this study (Dominguez-Mà ¡rquez et al. 2009; Eroglu et al. 2009; Jones et al. 2009; Hussein et al. 2008; Tan et al. 2008). Molecular phylogenetic analysis need to be carried out in order to further characterized the subtype of asymptomatic isolate used in this study (Noel et al. 2005; Stensvold et al. 2007; Yoshikawa et al. 2007). In this study, the Blasto-Ag isolated from both symptomatic as well as asymptomatic isolates have caused an inhibition of PBMC cells proliferation which leads to the speculation that the Blasto-Ag may have caused apoptosis in the immune cells to prevent the propagation of immune cells to combat with the Blastocystis infection. The symptomatic isolate has caused a greater inhibition of PBMCs as compare to asymptomatic isolates. However, the Blasto-Ag mediated PBMCs cell inhibition is contrast to our previous report (Chandramathi et al. 2010). Our previous study showed that Blasto-Ag caused stimulation of PBMCs cell proliferation (Chandramathi et al. 2010). However, the molecular genotyping of the B. hominis isolates used in that study was not carried out. Past studies have reported that there may be a correlation between different B. hominis subtypes on the pathogenesis in human hosts (Dominguez-Mà ¡rquez et al. 2009; Eroglu et al. 2009; Jones et al. 2009; Hussein et al. 2008; Tan et al. 2008). This contrasting result observed in the cell viability of PBMCs may suggest the different subtypes of B. hominis may give different effects on the immune cells. Hence, further investigation is required to investigate the potential pathogenesis of different B. hominis subtypes. In the current study, increase in cell proliferation has been observed in colorectal carcinoma cell line, HCT116 cells upon exposure to antigen from symptomatic as well as asymptomatic isolates. HCT116 cells have shown significantly higher increase in cell proliferation stimulated by symptomatic Blasto-Ag as compared to asymptomatic antigen. The increase in the cell proliferation may further suggest that Blastocystis infection could facilitate the growth of colorectal cancer cells (Chandramathi et al. 2010). It is evident from the present study that symptomatic Blasto-Ag is more pathogenic as compared to asymptomatic Blasto-Ag. Hence, it may be essential to treat the Blastocystis infection in symptomatic colorectal cancer patients for better prognosis. On the other hand, a diverse pattern of cytokine, nuclear transcription factor as well as apoptotic gene expressions were observed upon the stimulation of HCT116 cells and PBMCs by symptomatic and asymptomatic derived Blasto-Ag. In the present study a noticeable up-regulation of Th1 (IFN-ÃŽ ³ and TNF-ÃŽ ±) and Th2 (IL6, IL8 and TGF-ÃŽ ²) cytokines was observed in HCT116 following exposure to symptomatic Blasto-Ag may lead to the speculation that B. hominis has activated the cellular and humoral immune responses in clearing the Blastocystis infection. This is accordance to the previous study that extracellular parasites such as B. hominis would be more effective in counteracted by a combination of Th1 and Th2 cytokines (Daugelat et al. 1996). Nevertheless, a more significant up-regulation of Th2 cytokines as compared to Th1 cytokines observed in HCT116 upon exposure to symptomatic and asymptomatic Blasto-Ag may lead to the postulation that symptomatic Blasto-Ag may resulting in a Th2- dominated responses and has the potential in weakening the cellular immune response, allowing the progression and growth of an existing tumour cells. On the other hand, HCT116 exposed to symptomatic Blasto-Ag has resulted in a more noticeable up-regulation of Th2 cytokines then asymptomatic Blasto-Ag which may lead to the speculation that asymptomatic Blasto-Ag is less pathogenic than symptomatic derived Blasto-Ag. Furthermore, the up-regulation of TGF-ÃŽ ² in the colorectal cancer cells has the potential role of anti-inflammatory and resulting in host immunosuppression by inhibiting the cell mediated immune responses against the tumour cells (Zou, 2005; Seruga et al. 2008). In addition, it is widely-accepted that humoral immunity is activated by extracellular microbes such as bacteria (Romagnani, 1996). B. hominis, being an extracellular allergen, has triggered the activation of host humoral immune responses which is evident by the significant up-regulation of Th2 cytokines in the PBMCs upon exposure to symptomatic and asymptomatic Blasto-Ag. Moreover, this results can be supported by the recent finding which shown an elevation of IL6 and IL8 level in the monocytes of healthy volunteers exposed to Leishmania infection (Menezes et al. 2008). In spite of that, an interesting finding has been observed in PBMCs stimulated by symptomatic and asymptomatic Blasto-Ag, besides activating the humoral immune responses, PBMCs exposed by Blasto-Ag has also triggered the activation of cellular mediated immune response characterized by Th1 cytokines. As described earlier, extracellular parasites may be more effective counteracted by a combination of Th1 and Th2 cytoki nes mediated immune responses (Daugelat et al. 1996). However, the activation of cellular mediated immune responses which is reflected by a significant up-regulation of TNF-ÃŽ ± and IFN-ÃŽ ³ may lead to the speculation that Blasto-Ag isolated from symptomatic as well as asymptomatic individual has the ability in causing extensive inflammatory damage in the host tissue as a result of macrophage mediated responses towards the parasitic infections. In addition, an up-regulation of NF-ÃŽ ºB and pro-inflammatory cytokines IL6 and IL8 was observed in HCT116 stimulated by symptomatic Blasto-Ag. Furthermore, these findings were also observed in PBMCs stimulated by symptomatic and asymptomatic Blasto-Ag. Nevertheless, HCT116 exposed to asymptomatic Blasto-Ag has exhibited an insignificant down-regulation of NF-à Ã‚ ºB gene expression which then leads to a significant lower expression in IL6 and IL8 as compared to HCT116 stimulated by symptomatic Blasto-Ag. Although the previous reports by Chandramathi et al. 2010 has stated the potential role of asymptomatic Blasto-Ag in causing the up-regulation of NF-à Ã‚ ºB and pro-inflammatory cytokines IL6 and IL8, however, the similar trend was not observed in the current study. As described earlier, different Blastocystis subtypes may have different effects on HCT116 cells as well as causing different gene expression profile in HCT116. To further characterize the gene expression profiles a s well as pathogenic potential of each subtype on HCT116 and PBMCs, more samples on different subtypes need to be recruited for the future study. Apart from this, NF-à Ã‚ ºB is also related to the apoptotic mediator genes namely p53 and CTSB. NF-à Ã‚ ºB has been postulated to play a role in inhibiting the apoptosis; hence it is hypothesized that the down-regulation of NF-à Ã‚ ºB gene expression will lead to the up-regulation of p53 and vice versa (Baldwin, 2001; Chwieralski et al. 2006). Although the recent study has suggested that CTSB may contribute to the cell apoptosis, however the studies have only reported on CTSB-mediated apoptosis in breast cancer cells as well as hepatocytes apoptosis in fulminant hepatic failure (Sandes et al, 2007; Yan et al. 2009). Nevertheless, the possibility of CTSB participation in the apoptosis of colorectal cancer cells has not been investigated. Moreover, there are a number of studies have shown that over expression of CTSB mRNA and elevation of its protein activity have been associated with the invasive and metastasis properties of various cancers (Campo et al. 1994; Yan et al, 1998; Hirai et al. 1999; Sanjeeva et al. 2001). The similar findings were observed in the current study where the HCT116 cells stimulated by symptomatic as well as asymptomatic Blasto-Ag have caused a significant up-regulation of CTSB. The over expression of CTSB in HCT116 cells stimulated by symptomatic and asymptomatic Blasto-Ag may implicate the potential of Blasto-Ag in causing the invasive and metastasis of colorectal cancer (Campo et al. 1994; Yan et al. 1998; Dora et al. 2003). In the present study, the insignificant down-regulation of p53 gene expressions observed in PBMCs may indicates that the symptomatic and asymptomatic Blasto-Ag may have prevented the PBMC cells to undergo the apoptosis process. The observation of p53 gene expressions obtained was contrary to the expectation. This may be due to the latent effects of the host immunity to down-regulate the apoptotic mediator gene in order to combat with the invasive B. hominis as well as to prevent persistent inflammation which can lead to carcinogenesis. Although the down-regulation pattern was observed, it does not causing a significant effect (0.95 and 0.96 fold decrease respectively). In contrast to PBMCs, stimulation of symptomatic Blasto-Ag in HCT116 has insignificantly down-regulated the gene expressions of p53. The insignificant down-regulation observed in HCT116 stimulated by symptomatic Blasto-Ag may be explained that it could be the reason that HCT116 cells to have low level of NF-à Ã‚ ºB gene expression level (1.34 fold increase). Nevertheless, the down-regulation observed may further suggest that symptomatic Blasto-Ag may has enhance the proliferation and progression of existing tumour besides causing an extensive release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. On the other hand, an interesting finding was observed in HCT116 exposed to asymptomatic Blasto-Ag, instead of causing down-regulation of p53 gene expression, asymptomatic Blasto-Ag has caused an up-regulation of p53 (1.09 fold increase) in HCT116. The findings and observations obtained from the current study are still far to characterize the mechanism of the potential pathogenic role of B. hominis in PBMCs as well as HCT116 cells. However, the current study was able to give an overview of the potential pathogenesis of symptomatic and asymptomatic derived Blasto-Ag in HCT116 and PBMCs. Moreover, the findings also suggest that symptomatic derived Blasto-Ag is more pathogenic as compare to asymptomatic Blasto-Ag. More studies still need to be done on the association of this emerging parasite on the association with the colorectal cancer. CONCLUSION The MTT cell proliferative assay and gene expression profile in this study has shown that the solubilized antigen isolated from symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals, at a particular concentration, could facilitate the proliferation and growth of colorectal carcinoma while having the ability to induce apoptosis on PBMCs immune cells. Moreover, the cell proliferative assay also successfully reported that antigen isolated from symptomatic individual is more pathogenic as compare to asymptomatic isolates, as it causes a significantly higher increase in cell proliferation of HCT116 colorectal carcinoma cell lines and a significantly higher increase in inhibition of PBMCs immune cells. Moreover, symptomatic isolate of B. hominis has exhibited a more evident increase in the gene expression of Th1 and Th2 cyokines. Hence, there is a vital need to screen colorectal cancer patients for B. hominis infection.

Examples of Good Globalization

Examples of Good Globalization When attempting to come up with a good example of globalisation, the first things that come to mind are McDonalds and children from third world countries wearing USA t-shirts. Anthony Giddens mentions in his book Runaway World how a friend of his was doing field studies in a village in central Africa. She was invited to a local home to enjoy an evening she thought would be culturally informing; however, the families entertainment turned out to be a viewing of the American movie Basic Instinct, and the movie hadnt even been released in London yet (Giddens 2002). This is merely one of many examples that go to show how the world we live in is undergoing a drastic transformation that is impossible for anyone to ignore. Whether it is noticeable or not, globalisation is affecting every person on earth, in every aspect of our lives and in everything we do. Most skeptics and radicals look at the economic side of globalisation and toss the other aspects of globalisation to the side. Globalisation is technological, political, and cultural, just as much as it is economic. It is modifying and influencing, but not destroying, cultural identities across the globe. No matter what country comes to mind, almost all have a word in their own native language for globalisation. This global trend is impossible to miss, from curry and chips-recently voted the favourite dish in Britain-to Thai saunas, Zen Catholicism or Judaism, Nigerian Kung Fu, or Bollywood films, made in Bombay-Mumbai and mixing Indian traditions of song and dance with the conventions of Hollywood (Burke 2009). This is not to say that we are undergoing global hybridisation or falling to transnationalisation, but rather, that the cultural blending happening all around the globe is helping us gain knowledge of the world through the many means of communication out there. Also, globalisation is not diminishing cultural identities, but rather, it is heightening an individual cultures sense of self. Many believe a World Order is indeed falling upon us, some being for it and some against, but if we were to undergo the transition to a single World/Government Order, we would lose all sense of culture identities and individualism. If we had a global state, what would prevent the leaders of this new order from dictating a world of secularization? Who would want to be forced to be in a World Order where everything is dictated and all are forced to more or less become a puppet to one world government? Whether it is seen as a World Order, a global society, or a world system, its presence is unnecessary in todays world. Emile Durkheim, a sociologist not opposed to World Order and solidarity, states that, any society is motivated by its need to normatize the event of its togetherness by constructing and adhering to common symbols, beliefs, and practices. Those common symbols, beliefs, and practices do not exist, therefore, simply for the sake of their intrinsic value, truth, or logic. In other words, they have no intrinsic essence (Bamyeh 2000). In saying that the societies and cultures in todays world lack intrinsic essence in their beliefs, traditions, and practices, Durkheim is underlying that these societies have no innate feelings for their own cultural identities, and that these identities have been formed out of the necessity to bring people together to form a society. If Durkheim were to simply take into account all the religious and cultural turmoil going on, she would see that a cultures beliefs, symbols, and practices do hold intrinsic essence to the people within. A largely discussed topic pertaining to globalisation revolves around Benjamin Barbers thesis, distinguishing the differences between the forces of McWorld and Jihad. These are two general attitudes in regards to globalisation. McWorld represents global mass culture and the unification by consumerism and transnationalism. Jihad, on the other hand, represents the deterioration of local traditions and histories due to globalisation (Cowen 2002). My idea of how globalisation is shaping the world and cultural identities is a mix of the two. Yes, mass cultural communication is unifying the world is every aspect of our lives, but it is not deteriorating local traditions and histories, nor are the worlds cultures subject to transnationalisation. Globalisation is, if anything, allowing individual cultures to expand their knowledge of other cultures and allowing them to use and share products, ideas, and customs of other cultures in unison with their own cultures. The blending of nations and cultures is going on as we speak. It is at our fingertips every day with global communications and the Internet. These forms of communication due to globalisation are how we can be enriched by other cultures and share what we have to offer, but the main difference is our choice to choose what we want to study, admire and aspire to be more like or what cultures we want to melt into our own. Without falling to the grips of a single World Order or system, and without cultures falling to transnationalism, it is possible for globalisation to continue throughout the world, as we know it. As Bamyeh (2000) proposes, the process of globalisation is beginning to create a common knowledge system, which is being communicated across the entire globe. This common knowledge system is being communicated by means of: international media, through films and music; mass travel, through students studying abroad and backpackers trekking across nations; and the Internet, through Facebook, blogs and chats, and international News websites. All of these forms of communication have aided in the widespread knowledge of the worlds cultures, making way for the adoption of international influences on a freedom-of-choice level (McQuail 2002). Communication is what enhances feelings of togetherness in societies and cultures. It is what essentially started the formation of societies and individual cultural profiles. With the improvement of technological communication over the past few decades, communities that have been isolated from each other have been able to exchange cultural elements of interest between one another (for example, the Basic Instinct movie in the central African village mentioned in the introduction) (Bamyeh 2000). When looking at the overall effects the mass media has had on globalisation, the Western nations control most of the symbolic and cultural aspects of cross-cultural communications through their media products. Though foreign troops may not be deployed, and a foreign government established, the presence of the empire is felt in the everyday presence of Western media products (Macgregor Wise 2008). In this sense, Macgregor Wise is almost saying that the globalisation of Americas media is giving all other countries defensive feelings towards America, and that it poses as a major cultural threat. However, when looking at world music, literature, and visual arts, it is clearly apparent that cultures have benefited from these communal aspects of globalisation, and that America is clearly not a global threat to cultures. These means of mass media have provided a diverse menu of choice for cultures in developing their own cultural identities (Cowen 2002). In developing or maintaining cultura l identities during the processes of globalisation, countries have developed their own unique ways in staying true to their individual identities. This goes to show that the beliefs and practices a culture maintains do indeed have intrinsic essence, as stated earlier, and that a culture can maintain its identity while also absorbing what it freely chooses from other cultures. The worlds wide variety of media products and how countries incorporate them into their own culture is a perfect example of cultures absorbing other cultures while maintaining their own. Canada, France, Spain, Italy, Germany, name the country, and they probably import Western media. Many believe that all the importation from the Wests media markets is leading to Americanisation, but when taking a closer look, it is apparent that these importing cultures put just as much if not more emphasis on their own markets than they do the Western markets. Canada, for instance, subsidizes their own domestic cinema and mandates domestic musical content for a percentage of radio time. Likewise, the French spend billions of dollars a year on cultural matters, aiding in the nourishing and successes of their French culture (Cowen 2002). The fear of Hollywood devouring the markets of other countries is being countered innately by the individual countries themselves. Granted, many of the movies played in international cinemas, in France and Italy for instance, are Hollywood films. The main cultural aspect behind this is that the movies are translated into the countries own native language. This is proof that countries can uphold their own cultural aspects while absorbing those of others. When discussing movies with an Italian and a French friend, we found ourselves talking about the movie titles. The movie Home Alone (1990) to Italians is called Mamma Ho Perso Laereo (which translates to Mom I Missed My Flight). The movie A Man For All Seasons (1967) in France is called Un Homme Pour Là ©ternità ©, which translates to a man for eternity. These small changes to Western media products are only a few examples as to how countries can still maintain a cultural identity. Just because the Western culture is widely disperse d throughout the world does not mean countries are falling to Americanisation, let alone Globalisation. There are always steps being taken by countries and cultures in maintaining their own identity. Many critics of the globalisation ideology refute with the fact that many cultures in the world today have already fallen to the processes of globalisation, namely homogenisation. American Indian communities, for example, have been overshadowed by the entirety of the United States, and these contemporary critics believe these communities are on the verge of homogenization (Lewellen 2002). However, as Cowen stated it best, once these individuals [e.g. the American Indian communities] have been brought into a common pool with well-developed means of communication, however, they sort themselves into more finely grained and more diverse groups (Cowen 2002). With an outlook like this, one can see that, even with the effects of globalisation, communities still find ways to diversify themselves from other closely sectored communities. If a culture is amongst the grips of globalisation, the effects are counter-acted by popular press, interest groups, and social movements who devout great dea ls of attention to these cultural dilemmas. It is the threat of the loss of traditional identities that trigger cultures to look inwards at their own identities. This healthy narcissism that results from the fear of globalisation is what keeps cultural identities alive in the world we live in today (Burke 2009). When cultures begin to look inwards is when they begin to value greatly the differences between their own cultural identities and those of others. A culture thought to be on the brink of distinction isnt on the brink at all. The attention drawn to a troubled culture allows that culture to prevail, and in the process the knowledge and traditions of that troubled culture become known to the public. The world would know very little about, for example, American Indians, or dying languages such as Welsh, Basque, and Yiddish, if it wasnt for the troubles these heritages faced (Cowen 2000). Globalisation isnt simply Black and White, McWorld and Jihad, homogenization or heterogenisation. There is and always will be an in-between area, which is where the world is at now and where I feel it best belongs. With the process of globalisation, there will always be the countering effect. By resting in the middle, through mass communication, people have been able to gain knowledge of other cultures they would have never dreamed of knowing about. The diverse cuisine menus, musical genres, film categories, and traveling opportunities have all made way for the world to gain knowledge of different cultural traditions. The world, as we know it, thrives off of the cultures that cherish and preserve their cultural identities. A world culture which is simply a uniform culture would be no culture at all. We should have a humanity de-humanised. It would be a nightmare (Murali 2010). Why would the world fall completely to globalisation or a World Order when what it thrives on would simply b e destroyed in the process? The absorption of cultural knowledge and traditions through the wide variety of mass communication available to us today truly heightens a cultures sense of self, innately countering globalisation and allowing cultures to continually prevail.